Ethiopia’s Education Problem: 96% of students fail final school exam 

Written by Zoë Alford

Hundreds of thousands of students are left without the opportunity for higher education due to a massive educational crisis currently facing Ethiopia. Out of the 3,106 schools administering 12th grade in 2023, 43% reported that no students had passed the Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (EGSECE) (Hood, 2023). This final exam is a prerequisite for university entrance and saw 96% of students failing for the second year in a row (Hood, 2023). The overwhelming majority of Ethiopia’s youth are now left with limited education opportunities and few choices for their future. While exam results are not the only measure of a country’s education system, such significant failure rates can only be symptomatic of one that is fractured and struggling.

Structural Issues:

The education system in Ethiopia is struggling to keep up with the burgeoning numbers of primary and secondary school students. Since 1990, students in primary education increased from 3 million to 20 million in 2018/19 (Tiruneh et al., 2021). With more students finishing primary school than ever before, Ethiopian pupils are continuing on into high school with limited resources and infrastructure in place to support them. Secondary enrollment has doubled in the last 10 years, going from 23% in 2011/12 to 46% in 2021/22 (Ministry of Education, 2022) This remarkable achievement has given greater access to education for children from disadvantaged backgrounds and drastically increased the number of girls in school. However, the rapid expansion of the education system has left it struggling to ensure all students are given a sound education and the resources they require (Tiruneh et al., 2021).

Poor school infrastructure, inadequate distribution of resources and outdated materials have also fueled this crisis. Combined with a system stretched thin to meet the demands of ever-increasing pupils, hundreds of thousands of children have consequentially finished primary education without fundamental skills in literacy and numeracy (Hood, 2023). These abilities are not only essential for further education but also necessary to live a life of opportunity in a modern, globalised world.

The lack of robust education combined with a burgeoning student population has also left Ethiopia without appropriately trained teachers. In the country’s teacher trainee program, many candidates have not completed the final 2 years of secondary education. Trainees often also score low when tested for their science and mathematics abilities (Assefa et al. 2021; Gebremeskel et al. 2017). This leaves a major gap in the education system for educated and well-trained teachers, creating a cycle where limited education creates poorly educated teachers, creating further inadequate education for younger students in fundamental subjects. There is also a high student-to-teacher ratio, stretching what teachers that Ethiopia does have already, thinner (Assefa et al. 2021). Ethiopia has recognized that their educational system must consider the gap between their societal goals for education and the general student learning experience (Hood, 2023).

Covid-19:

It is also important to note that the Covid-19 pandemic widened the education gap. Lockdowns in 2020 prevented more than 26 million students from learning over a period of 8 months (Araya et al., 2022). With limited online learning materials and resources, students were required to catch up on 8 months’ worth of lessons lost in just 45 days. Primary school students in 2021 had lower foundational numeracy skills and made slower progress in numeracy as the year progressed, compared to students from 2018 (Araya et al., 2022). The pandemic lockdowns also heavily affected students from rural and lower-income families, with pupils from these backgrounds having the lowest numeracy levels in their cohort (Araya et al., 2022). The pandemic therefore exacerbated the systemic problems already prevalent in Ethiopia’s education system.

Internal Conflict:

The Tigray War in northern Ethiopia also likely added to the declining exam results. Lasting from November 2020 until November 2022, the conflict caused a humanitarian crisis, human rights abuses and destruction of infrastructure, including educational institutions. The conflict affected around 1.4 million children in the region, with many parents too concerned about their children’s safety to send them to school (Belay et al., 2023). This conflict severely limited access to education, for reasons such as trauma, loss of infrastructure and population movement (Belay et al., 2023). The armed conflict in Tigray has not only impacted on educational achievement in the region but also limited education opportunities. This has been cited as another reason for the extremely low pass rate in Ethiopia in recent years (Belay et al., 2023).

Looking forward:

An overall greater financial investment in education would offer a fast-tracked solution to many of Ethiopia’s’ education systemic problems. Funding for additional, more uniform and up to date learning resources as well as improving school infrastructure would greatly increase educational quality for all students. Higher salaries, a stronger teacher training program and leadership training would encourage and upskill both current and potential teachers in Ethiopia (Tena & Motuma, 2024). Leadership training and a better trainee program can also be achieved via greater investment in university education, which has the potential to play a critical role in overcoming widespread structural issues. Investing in universities encourages innovation and improvement in curriculum, teacher training programs and capacity building within the education system (Tena & Motuma, 2024).

Greater focus on students from disadvantaged backgrounds would also ensure that Ethiopia’s most vulnerable pupils would not miss out on an education. Targeted support for low-performing students, those from low socio-economic backgrounds and students from rural areas would prevent further widening learning inequalities (Araya et al., 2022). When possible, employing technological forms of teaching would keep pupils in school who otherwise would not be able to attend, whether caused by conflict, illness or events like Covid-19. When online learning is not possible, continuing to encourage the importance of education across local communities and providing learning resources would greatly encourage students from disadvantaged backgrounds to continue their education (Araya et al., 2022). Ensuring pupils can still access education, despite conflict, pandemics or remoteness is essential to ensure such high rates of failure do not continue in the future.

Overall, Ethiopia must continue to invest and improve in their education system. This will ensure the robust functioning of not only its economy, but the right to self-determination for all Ethiopians regardless of economic background. Education has the power to reduce inequality, poverty, and it is therefore necessary to ensure that future Ethiopian generations are not left behind.

Photo by Roman Mager on Unsplash

Resources:

Araya, M., Rose, P., Sabates, R., Tiruneh, D.T., Woldeanna, T. (2022). Learning Losses during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Ethiopia: Comparing student achievement in early primary grades before school closures, and after they reopened. Rise Insight Series. Retrieved from https://riseprogramme.org/publications/learning-losses-during-covid-19-pandemic-ethiopia-comparing-student-achievement-early.html

Assefa, S., Asfaw, A., Fufa, D., Zewdie, G., Wodajo, H., Kekeba, H. & Tola, T. (2021). Status of teacher education programs in Ethiopia: Policy, curricula and resources. The Ethiopian Journal of Education, 41(1), 247-296.

Belay, F., Berhane, D., Teshale, H., Mulubrhan, G., Hagos, T., Gebremariam, H., Brhane, T., Islam, Z. (2023). The effect of war on educational institutions of Eastern Tigray zone, Tigray state, Ethiopia. International Journal of Educational Development, 102:102864. Retrieved from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0738059323001402#:~:text=Children%20did%20not%20attend%20schools,relevant%20to%20the%20war%20experiences.

Gebremeskel, H.H., Ahmed, A.Y., Getahun, D.A., Debele, M.L., Tibebu, D., Wondem, D.T. (2017). Revisiting teacher educators’ training in Ethiopia: Implications for a new approach to curriculum development. Bahir Dar Journal of Education, 17(2), 89-105.

https://www.ajol.info/index.php/bdje/article/view/249011/235474

Hood, L. (2023, November 23). Ethiopia’s education system is in crisis – now’s the time to fix it. The Conversation. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/ethiopias-education-system-is-in-crisis-nows-the-time-to-fix-it-217817

Ministry of Education (2022). Education statistics annual abstract (ESAA). Federal Republic of Ethiopia. Retrieved from https://moe.gov.et/storage/Books/ESAA%202014%20EC%20(2021-22%20G.C)%20Final.pdf

Tena, B. & Motuma, F. (2024). Policy reforms and unresolved educational challenges in Ethiopia: Implications for the University of Education. Bahir Dar Journal of Education, 24(1), 147-167. https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/bdje.v24i1.10

Tiruneh, D., Hoddinott, J., Rolleston, C., Sabates, R., Woldehanna, T. (2021). Understanding achievement in numeracy among primary school children in Ethiopia: Evidence from Rise Ethiopia study . RISE Working Paper Series. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John-Hoddinott-2/publication/359826987_Understanding_Achievement_in_Numeracy_Among_Primary_School_Children_in_Ethiopia_Evidence_from_RISE_Ethiopia_Study/links/64676983c9802f2f72ea0135/Understanding-Achievement-in-Numeracy-Among-Primary-School-Children-in-Ethiopia-Evidence-from-RISE-Ethiopia-Study.pdf

Current Issues Ethiopia’s Education Problem: 96% of students fail final school exam

By Zoë Alford

Hundreds of thousands of students are left without the opportunity for higher education due to a massive educational crisis currently facing Ethiopia. Out of the 3,106 schools administering 12th grade in 2023, 43% reported that no students had passed the Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (EGSECE) (Hood, 2023). This final exam is a prerequisite for university entrance and saw 96% of students failing for the second year in a row (Hood, 2023). The overwhelming majority of Ethiopia’s youth are now left with limited education opportunities and few choices for their future. While exam results are not the only measure of a country’s education system, such significant failure rates can only be symptomatic of one that is fractured and struggling.

Structural Issues:

The education system in Ethiopia is struggling to keep up with the burgeoning numbers of primary and secondary school students. Since 1990, students in primary education increased from 3 million to 20 million in 2018/19 (Tiruneh et al., 2021). With more students finishing primary school than ever before, Ethiopian pupils are continuing on into high school with limited resources and infrastructure in place to support them. Secondary enrollment has doubled in the last 10 years, going from 23% in 2011/12 to 46% in 2021/22 (Ministry of Education, 2022) This remarkable achievement has given greater access to education for children from disadvantaged backgrounds and drastically increased the number of girls in school. However, the rapid expansion of the education system has left it struggling to ensure all students are given a sound education and the resources they require (Tiruneh et al., 2021).

Poor school infrastructure, inadequate distribution of resources and outdated materials have also fueled this crisis. Combined with a system stretched thin to meet the demands of ever-increasing pupils, hundreds of thousands of children have consequentially finished primary education without fundamental skills in literacy and numeracy (Hood, 2023). These abilities are not only essential for further education but also necessary to live a life of opportunity in a modern, globalised world.

The lack of robust education combined with a burgeoning student population has also left Ethiopia without appropriately trained teachers. In the country’s teacher trainee program, many candidates have not completed the final 2 years of secondary education. Trainees often also score low when tested for their science and mathematics abilities (Assefa et al. 2021; Gebremeskel et al. 2017). This leaves a major gap in the education system for educated and well-trained teachers, creating a cycle where limited education creates poorly educated teachers, creating further inadequate education for younger students in fundamental subjects. There is also a high student-to-teacher ratio, stretching what teachers that Ethiopia does have already, thinner (Assefa et al. 2021). Ethiopia has recognized that their educational system must consider the gap between their societal goals for education and the general student learning experience (Hood, 2023).

Covid-19:

It is also important to note that the Covid-19 pandemic widened the education gap. Lockdowns in 2020 prevented more than 26 million students from learning over a period of 8 months (Araya et al., 2022). With limited online learning materials and resources, students were required to catch up on 8 months’ worth of lessons lost in just 45 days. Primary school students in 2021 had lower foundational numeracy skills and made slower progress in numeracy as the year progressed, compared to students from 2018 (Araya et al., 2022). The pandemic lockdowns also heavily affected students from rural and lower-income families, with pupils from these backgrounds having the lowest numeracy levels in their cohort (Araya et al., 2022). The pandemic therefore exacerbated the systemic problems already prevalent in Ethiopia’s education system.

Internal Conflict:

The Tigray War in northern Ethiopia also likely added to the declining exam results. Lasting from November 2020 until November 2022, the conflict caused a humanitarian crisis, human rights abuses and destruction of infrastructure, including educational institutions. The conflict affected around 1.4 million children in the region, with many parents too concerned about their children’s safety to send them to school (Belay et al., 2023). This conflict severely limited access to education, for reasons such as trauma, loss of infrastructure and population movement (Belay et al., 2023). The armed conflict in Tigray has not only impacted on educational achievement in the region but also limited education opportunities. This has been cited as another reason for the extremely low pass rate in Ethiopia in recent years (Belay et al., 2023).

Looking forward:

An overall greater financial investment in education would offer a fast-tracked solution to many of Ethiopia’s’ education systemic problems. Funding for additional, more uniform and up to date learning resources as well as improving school infrastructure would greatly increase educational quality for all students. Higher salaries, a stronger teacher training program and leadership training would encourage and upskill both current and potential teachers in Ethiopia (Tena & Motuma, 2024). Leadership training and a better trainee program can also be achieved via greater investment in university education, which has the potential to play a critical role in overcoming widespread structural issues. Investing in universities encourages innovation and improvement in curriculum, teacher training programs and capacity building within the education system (Tena & Motuma, 2024).

Greater focus on students from disadvantaged backgrounds would also ensure that Ethiopia’s most vulnerable pupils would not miss out on an education. Targeted support for low-performing students, those from low socio-economic backgrounds and students from rural areas would prevent further widening learning inequalities (Araya et al., 2022). When possible, employing technological forms of teaching would keep pupils in school who otherwise would not be able to attend, whether caused by conflict, illness or events like Covid-19. When online learning is not possible, continuing to encourage the importance of education across local communities and providing learning resources would greatly encourage students from disadvantaged backgrounds to continue their education (Araya et al., 2022). Ensuring pupils can still access education, despite conflict, pandemics or remoteness is essential to ensure such high rates of failure do not continue in the future.

Overall, Ethiopia must continue to invest and improve in their education system. This will ensure the robust functioning of not only its economy, but the right to self-determination for all Ethiopians regardless of economic background. Education has the power to reduce inequality and poverty and it is therefore necessary to ensure that future Ethiopian generations are not left behind.

References

Araya, M., Rose, P., Sabates, R., Tiruneh, D.T., Woldeanna, T. (2022). Learning Losses during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Ethiopia: Comparing student achievement in early primary grades before school closures, and after they reopened. Rise Insight Series. Retrieved from https://riseprogramme.org/publications/learning-losses-during-covid-19-pandemic-ethiopia-comparing-student-achievement-early.html

Assefa, S., Asfaw, A., Fufa, D., Zewdie, G., Wodajo, H., Kekeba, H. & Tola, T. (2021). Status of teacher education programs in Ethiopia: Policy, curricula and resources. The Ethiopian Journal of Education, 41(1), 247-296.

Belay, F., Berhane, D., Teshale, H., Mulubrhan, G., Hagos, T., Gebremariam, H., Brhane, T., Islam, Z. (2023). The effect of war on educational institutions of Eastern Tigray zone, Tigray state, Ethiopia. International Journal of Educational Development, 102:102864. Retrieved from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0738059323001402#:~:text=Children%20did%20not%20attend%20schools,relevant%20to%20the%20war%20experiences.

Gebremeskel, H.H., Ahmed, A.Y., Getahun, D.A., Debele, M.L., Tibebu, D., Wondem, D.T. (2017). Revisiting teacher educators’ training in Ethiopia: Implications for a new approach to curriculum development. Bahir Dar Journal of Education, 17(2), 89-105.

https://www.ajol.info/index.php/bdje/article/view/249011/235474

Hood, L. (2023, November 23). Ethiopia’s education system is in crisis – now’s the time to fix it. The Conversation. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/ethiopias-education-system-is-in-crisis-nows-the-time-to-fix-it-217817

Ministry of Education (2022). Education statistics annual abstract (ESAA). Federal Republic of Ethiopia. Retrieved from https://moe.gov.et/storage/Books/ESAA%202014%20EC%20(2021-22%20G.C)%20Final.pdf

Tena, B. & Motuma, F. (2024). Policy reforms and unresolved educational challenges in Ethiopia: Implications for the University of Education. Bahir Dar Journal of Education, 24(1), 147-167. https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/bdje.v24i1.10

Tiruneh, D., Hoddinott, J., Rolleston, C., Sabates, R., Woldehanna, T. (2021). Understanding achievement in numeracy among primary school children in Ethiopia: Evidence from Rise Ethiopia study . RISE Working Paper Series. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John-Hoddinott-2/publication/359826987_Understanding_Achievement_in_Numeracy_Among_Primary_School_Children_in_Ethiopia_Evidence_from_RISE_Ethiopia_Study/links/64676983c9802f2f72ea0135/Understanding-Achievement-in-Numeracy-Among-Primary-School-Children-in-Ethiopia-Evidence-from-RISE-Ethiopia-Study.pdf

Featured image by Emmanuel Ikwuegbu from Unsplash

Current Issues The conflict in Congo: impact on education

By Zoe Alford

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is undergoing a major humanitarian crisis, that is severely impacting education and human rights. Due to the ongoing conflict in the region, millions of people have been displaced, teachers kidnapped and schools turned into battlegrounds. Escalation of the conflict in the North Kivu region of the DRC has forced 540 schools to close in the past year, removing pivotal educational opportunities from many students (Save the Children, 2024).

Education in the DRC:

This current situation unravels decades of progress in the DRC, where great strides had been made in recent decades to create universal access to education. Access to primary school education has increased significantly in the last few decades, with net attendance rates increasing from 52% in 2001 to 78% in 2018 (UNICEF, 2024).

Nonetheless, the country still faces major structural issues regarding access to education. 7.6 million children and half of all girls between age 5-17 are not in school, with the cost of school for families living in poverty being a major reason (UNICEF, 2024). Despite the promise of free primary education from the DRC government, households facing extreme poverty struggle to pay for registration fees, school uniforms and school supplies (UNICEF, 2024). Secondary school enrolment rates further reflect this education gender gap, with 44% of girls enrolled compared to 70% of boys (UNESCO, 2024). This is further reflected in secondary school completion rates with just 51.4% of girls and 63.5% of boys continuing onto graduation (UNESCO, 2024). For higher education, 5% of women and 8% of men were enrolled in tertiary education in 2020 (UNESCO, 2024).

Payroll fraud, insufficient budgets, and a lack of materials and infrastructure also create challenges for the educational system in the DRC. Many of the 500,000 teachers in the country have gone without government pay for many years, leaving parents responsible to supplement their pay (Brant et al., 2021). In a country with already high levels of poverty, this creates a major financial obstacle to education. Teachers often must supplement their low incomes with second or even third jobs, reducing their time, energy, and passion and consequentially the quality of teaching (Brant et al., 2021).

The gender gap in school enrolment, the socio-economic disparities in educational access, as well as financing issues, are only worsened by the escalating conflict in the DRC. With the closing of hundreds of schools in the country, these systemic issues have and will continue to exacerbate, leaving hundreds of thousands more and more children without education opportunities.

Violence in North Kivu:

Since the beginning of the conflict in DRC in 1996, more than 6 million people have died and many millions more displaced (CFR, 2024). Beginning in the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide, the First Congo War saw the invasion of the eastern part of the DRC by Rwandan troops and Congo-based Tutsi militias. The invasion of the north Kivu region was supported by Uganda, Burundi and Congo’s then opposition leader and future leader Laurent Kabila. Rwandan officials justified the invasion, arguing that Hutu groups in eastern DRC were still a threat to their Tutsi population who had been decimated during the genocide. While some Hutu militants were killed, the majority of the thousands of causalities were refugees and non-combatant Congolese (CFR, 2024). In 1998, the second Congo War saw worsening political tensions between armed groups and governments in the region. With targeted campaigns against the Huti amounting to war crimes, it caused international outrage. In a failed coup attempt, DRC’s leader, Kabila, was assassinated and replaced by his son (CFR, 2024). The following years saw peace agreements between DRC, Rwanda and Uganda implemented, however rebel groups continued to emerge creating tensions and flashpoints in the last two decades. Most notability, is M23, a mostly Tutsi rebel group with ties to the Rwandan and Ugandan governments. The name is taken from March 23 2009, when the National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP) signed a peace treaty with the DRC government, becoming a political party and the M23 soldiers integrated into the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC). The Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), and Islamic State (ISIS) are two major Islamist rebel and affiliated militia groups (Lawal, 2024). The DRC’s abundance of natural resources, especially their large reserves of rare earth minerals and metals essential for modern technology, has propelled their local problems onto the international stage. The involvement of China and historically, large US tech companies has only created further tensions and deepened inequality.

The violent and fraudulent national elections in 2023 saw major clashes between M23 and ADF. This again escalated in February 2024, creating a humanitarian disaster, political chaos and insecurity across the region. Education is not only indirectly affected by this conflict, but also actively targeted. Armed groups have seized 23 schools in the north Kivu region and directly attacked 10 schools (Save the Children, 2024). Teachers have also been kidnapped and students abducted on the way to school or in class. A further 29 schools have also been turned into emergency shelters for displaced civilians (Save the Children, 2024).

Conflict and its impacts on education:

Conflict also indirectly impacts on the right to education. Economic hardship often leaves children forced to work instead of going to school, with girls disproportionally affected. The long-term consequences of conflict can be felt by generations to long-term development setbacks and lack of opportunity (Mlaba, 2023). This leads to long term economic and social disruption, which in turn can trigger further conflicts in the future. Education and its relationship to conflict is often “complex, multi-scalar and non-linear” (Novelli & Cardozo, 2008), meaning that the impacts of conflict are often not immediately noticeable.

Emergency Education:

International efforts have been made to mitigate these effects by protecting education during conflicts and promoting conflict-sensitive education strategies (Mlaba, 2023). As an example of such mitigation efforts, UNICEF, the European Commission’s Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid department (ECHO) and the Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF) have partnered up to construct three temporary learning spaces (UNICEF, 2024). In just a few weeks, with support from local communities, classrooms were constructed using wood and other readily available materials. These new spaces have allowed several dozen additional pupils to enrol. The temporary classes provide displaced children the opportunity to continue their education and benefit children from nearby families (UNICEF, 2024). On top of their academic studies, students are also learning essential social skills, such as interacting and building relationships with others outside their immediate community. Unfortunately, however, with around 3 quarter of a million children out of school because of this conflict, a lot more must be done to ensure all Congolese children have access to education (UNICEF, 2023).

Conclusively, To to ensure peace and development not only in the DRC, but across the globe, it is of paramount importance that education is prioritised for all children. By protecting education, investing in quality teachers, educating future generations about history and financing rebuilding projects, a more stable and equal society can be reached. While access to education is perhaps not the first issue that comes to mind when discussing the conflict in the DRC, it is highly important to use education as a tool to safeguard long-term stability and peace.

References

Brandt, C.O., Marchais, G., Mwakupemba, J.T., Moshonas, S. De Herdt, T. (2021). Why payroll fraud in the DRC’s education sector will be hard to fix. The Conversation.

https://theconversation.com/why-payroll-fraud-in-the-drcs-education-sector-will-be-hard-to-fix-162257

Center for preventative action (CFR). (May 15, 2024). Conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo. https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/violence-democratic-republic-congo

Lawal, S. (February 21, 2024). A guide to the decades-long conflict in DR Congo. Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/2/21/a-guide-to-the-decades-long-conflict-in-dr-congo

Mlaba, K. (June 26, 2023). How do war & conflict impact education? Global Citizen. https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/how-do-war-conflict-impact-education/

Novelli, M., & Cardozo, M.T.L. (2008). Conflict, education and the global south: New critical directions. International Journal of Educational Development, 28(4), 473-488. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2008.01.004

Save the Children. (2024, March 28). DRC: Violence in North Kivu forces over 500 schools to close, with teachers kidnapped and students terrified [Press release].

https://www.savethechildren.net/news/drc-violence-north-kivu-forces-over-500-schools-close-teachers-kidnapped-and-students-terrified

UNICEF. (March 29, 2023). Conflict in eastern DRC is having a devastating impact on children’s education. UNICEF [Press release].

https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/conflict-eastern-drc-having-devastating-impact-childrens-education

UNICEF. (2024). Education: every child has the right to go to school and learn.

https://www.unicef.org/drcongo/en/what-we-do/education

UNICEF. (February 22, 2024). A wish to return to school is realized. UNICEF

https://www.unicef.org/drcongo/en/stories/wish-return-school-realized

UNSECO. (January, 2024). Congo, Democratic Republic (DRC): Education Country Brief. International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa.

https://www.iicba.unesco.org/en/node/80#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20UNESCO%20Institute,and%2063.5%20percent%20of%20boys

 

Featured image by Doug Linstedt  from Unsplash

Academic Freedom in Zimbabwe: A concerning trend 

Introduction 

Academic freedom in Zimbabwe is currently at one of its lowest levels in history. Regionally, the country also ranks as having one of the lowest academic freedom index in sub-Saharan Africa (Academic Freedom Index, 2024). As a cornerstone for democratic and free societies, it is essential that students and scholars can pursue education, research and knowledge without the fear of repercussion. However, in Zimbabwe, academic freedom remains precarious, constrained by political interference, economic hardships, and legal ambiguities. This has profound implications for both human rights and education, as the suppression of academic freedom not only limits individual expression but also undermines the development of a society that values knowledge, critical thinking, and innovation.  

 

A Historical Context of Suppression 

Zimbabwe’s struggle with academic freedom has deep historical roots, tracing back to its colonial past. During the era of British colonial rule, the government employed various strategies to control academic discourse, including surveillance and deportation of academics deemed subversive (Mushawatu, 2023). This tactic continued post-independence, with the government of Robert Mugabe using similar methods to silence critics and maintain control. A major way in which Mugabe curtailed academic freedom was though the University of Zimbabwe Amendment Act of 1990, which reduced democratic freedom within universities, and made Mugabe officially the chancellor of all state universities in the country (Mashininga and Mukeredzi, 2019).  

 

Since Mugabe’s ousting in the 2017 coup, academic freedom has continued to decline. In the last 7 years, deportation has resurfaced as a tool for stifling academic inquiry. This can be seen in case of the Good Governance in Africa (GGA) researchers being deported in 2023. These researchers, intending to study the political landscape around the critical August elections, were barred entry into the country (Mushawatu, 2023). This example illustrates a broader trend of how the current Zimbabwean government considers academic scrutiny as a threat, and not as an opportunity for greater societal freedom. This alarming use state power to limit academic freedom has far reaching consequences and without change, will continue to tarnish the right to education and freedom of opinion in Zimbabwe.  

 

Legal and Constitutional Ambiguities 

Zimbabwe’s constitution, which was adopted in 2013, clearly outlines fundamental rights regarding education and its protection as well as academic freedom. Section 75 of the constitution explicitly mentions the right to education, and that every citizen and permanent resident of Zimbabwe should have access to it (Zimbabwe Lawyers for Human Rights, 2019). Section 61 enshrines the right to freedom of expression, including the freedom of scientific research and creativity, however, Section 62 conversely restricts the right to access information for citizens and permanent residents only (Zimbabwe 2013 Constitution, 2013). This contradictory legal framework creates a loophole that allows the government to restrict foreign researchers’ activities under the guise of legal compliance (Mushawatu, 2023). 

 

This legal ambiguity poses a significant threat to academic freedom, as it gives the government power to exclude foreign academics from participating in research on public institutions. This therefore restricts diverse opinion and discourse, and greater research on governance, human rights, and development in Zimbabwe. By limiting access to information and deporting researchers, the government not only contravenes the spirit of academic freedom but also undermines the pursuit of transparency and accountability. 

 

Impact on Education and Human Rights 

The suppression of academic freedom in Zimbabwe extends beyond the academic community, affecting the broader education system and society at large. Education is a fundamental human right, essential for the fruition of other rights and for the empowerment of individuals and communities. When academic freedom is curtailed, the quality of education suffers, as does the ability of students and scholars to engage critically with societal issues. 

 

In Zimbabwe, the interference in academia illustrates a broader symptom of a culture of government suppression of opinion. In 2020, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) voiced concern over allegations that the authorities in Zimbabwe may have used the COVID-19 pandemic to limit freedom of expression and the right to peacefully assemble (UN News, 2020). While health workers were protesting for better working conditions and salaries, violent force was used against them, with many being arbitrarily arrested, including some journalists and members of the opposition party (UN News, 2020). 

 

The recent elections further highlight a system that is suppressing human rights, political opposition and a peaceful democratic process. Although there were 11 candidates for the presidential campaign, the competition was seen as a contest between two main leaders. The first being Coalition of Change (CCC) leader Nelson Chamisa, and the second being Emmerson Mnangagwa, from the governing Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front (Zanu-PF) party (Nyoka, 2023). The Zanu-PF party has been in power since Zimbabwe’s independence and while they did oust Mugabe in 2017, many human rights advocates, such as Amnesty International and Human Rights watch have argued that little has changed politically (Nyoka, 2023). During the campaigning, CCC activist, Tapfumaneyi Masaya was kidnapped and murdered while another member of the party, lawmaker Takudzwa Ngadziore, was abducted and tortured (The Guardian, 2023). Chamisa later resigned, citing Zanu-PF infiltration of the CCC and corruption as the reason for his decision, ultimately leading Mnangagwa and the Zanu-PF party to victory (BBC News, 2024).  

 

Parallels with Broader Human Rights Issues 

The situation of academic freedom in Zimbabwe is reflective of broader human rights challenges in the country. Freedom House classifies Zimbabwe as “not free”, highlighting issues such as restrictions on freedom of speech, assembly, and the press (Freedom House, 2024). The suppression of academic freedom is part of this broader pattern of limiting civil liberties, which is characteristic of authoritarian regimes that prioritise control and power over openness and accountability. Therefore, Zimbabwe’s repression of academic freedom represents an assault on the right to education. In these contexts, education is not merely a victim of conflict and authoritarianism but a critical battleground where the struggle for rights, justice, and democracy plays out. 

 

The Way Forward 

To improve academic freedom in Zimbabwe, there must be a commitment to broader political and legal reforms. This includes revising the constitution and Zimbabwe’s legal framework, to provide unequivocal protection for academic freedom, including the rights of foreign researchers. Furthermore, the Zanu-PF government must recognise the value of academic freedom as a vital component of a thriving, democratic society and take steps to ensure that universities can operate free from political interference. If that is not possible, then the international community, including academic institutions, human rights organisations, and governments, should continue to condemn and act against infringements on academic freedom. By advocating for academic freedom in Zimbabwe, the global fight for the protection of education and human rights will be strengthened.    

 

References: 

  1. Academic Freedom Index. Academic Freedom Index. 2024. https://academic-freedom-index.net/. 
  1. Mushawatu, Zachariah. Deportation as a Tool to Stifle Academic Freedom. University World News, August 25, 2023.  https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=202308242015511. 
  1. Mashininga, Kudzai and Mukeredzi, Tonderayi. Mugabe: From Glory to Misery, Especially for Students. University World News, September 14, 2019. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20190911161959567. 
  1. Zimbabwe Lawyers for Human Rights. What Is the Right to Education? Fact Sheet. 2019. https://www.zlhr.org.zw/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/2015-Right-to-Education.pdf. 
  1. Zimbabwe 2013 Constitution. Constitute Project. 2013. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Zimbabwe_2013. 
  1. UN News. Zimbabwe: COVID-19 Must Not Be Used to Stifle Freedoms, Says UN Rights Office. United Nations, July 29, 2020. https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/07/1069011. 
  1. Nyoka, Shingai. Zimbabwe Elections 2023: What You Need to Know. BBC News, August 22, 2023. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-65775996. 
  1. The Guardian. “Abducted Zimbabwe Opposition Activist Tapfumaneyi Masaya Found Dead.” The Guardian, November 14, 2023.  https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/nov/14/abducted-zimbabwe-opposition-activist-tapfumaneyi-masaya-found-dead. 
  1. BBC News. “Nelson Chamisa: Zimbabwe Opposition CCC Leader Quits ‘contaminated’ Party.” BBC News. January 25, 2024. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68095685. 
  1. Freedom House. Zimbabwe. Freedom House, 2024. https://freedomhouse.org/country/zimbabwe/freedom-world/2024. 

 

Featured  Photo by Santi Vedrí on Unsplash

Seven Turkish Citizens Abducted in Kenya Press RELEASE

Panashe Mlambo and The Journalism Department.

Broken Chalk is deeply concerned about the proposed amendments to the Iraqi Personal Status Law No. 188 of 1959 and appeals to the government to safeguard the interests of children. If enacted, these amendments would pose a significant threat to the rights of women and children in Iraq.The proposed changes aim to reinstate religious laws over the current constitutional laws that govern Iraq. A particularly alarming aspect of this proposal is that it would allow for the legal marriage of girls to be 9 years and boys 15 years. Currently, Iraqi law prohibits marriage under the age of 18, ensuring a level of protection for children.The enactment of this proposal would have far-reaching consequences, not only economically and politically but also in terms of education. Every child has the right to education and to be treated as a child. As a signatory to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, Iraq is obligated to protect the interests of its children. This proposal represents a serious deviation from Iraq’s commitments under the UN Convention and would likely result in grave human rights violations.Research has consistently shown that child marriages reduce educational opportunities, increase school dropout rates, and restrict the freedom of children. Moreover, this law would likely exacerbate gender-based violence and further diminish accountability for perpetrators who target children.Broken Chalk strongly urges the Iraqi government to safeguard the interests of children and to protect their childhood and freedom by rejecting this harmful proposal.

Seven-Turkish-Citizens-Abducted-in-Kenya-Press-RELEASE

Missing Childhoods: Child Kidnapping in Nigeria

Written by Iasmina-Măriuca Stoian

“The statistics are disturbing; the reality is devastating. It has been 9 years since the horrendous abduction of the Chibok girls, yet the nightmare continues as children are still being kidnapped, forcibly recruited, killed and injured– their futures torn away,” said Cristian Munduate, UNICEF Representative in Nigeria.

Historical background

Situated on the West coast of Africa, Nigeria is a country with a rich history, that was also intertwined with its history as a British colony. Only after 1960, when it gained its independence, and it was declared a republic in 1963, Nigeria faced a difficult period of various dictatorships and political regimes that led to more political instability.

Additionally,  the country has faced issues such as cultural tensions, corruption and inequality. Recently, the numbers on child kidnappings have grown exponentially, particularly in conflict areas. These abductions not only have affected the families and the local communities but also have raised serious issues relating to the current administration and calls for urgent measures to be taken both at the national and international levels.

Despite the continuous efforts to address this issue, child kidnappings continue to remain one of the main challenges of the country, affecting not only the lives of children but also the country’s future. This article will look into the root causes that led to this serious issue, as well as the measures that were taken to combat the kidnappings and possible future measures to be taken by the government and international agents.

Understanding the issue

According to recent articles , more than 280 students were kidnapped from elementary schools in the northern region of the country, and seized by militants. This incident is reported to be bigger than the previous one[jc6] , also known as the Chibok girls abduction case. In 2014, Boko Haram, an Islamist jihadist group based in the northeastern region of Nigeria, abducted 276 girls from their dormitories, many of them still remaining missing to this day. This outrageous incident sparked international debate and led to the creation of the #BringBackOurGirls campaign on numerous social media platforms. The reality behind the abductions is even more horrific, leading to other crimes, such as rape, killing, and forced marriages.

Nine years after the Chibok girls incident, Amnesty International and UNICEF highlighted the lack of investigations by local authorities, abandonment of the cases and lack of action from the government. However, schools still are targets of abduction cases that are reported weekly, resulting in approximately 780 abducted children and 61 still held in captivity. [ii]Thus, international organizations are continuing to call for protection and justice for those children, as well as for measures to be taken by the Nigerian authorities.

This issue not only affects the lives of children and families, but it also associated with other issues in the country such as poverty, low rates of employment, political instability, and religious tensions. These challenges will be further discussed in the following paragraphs, explaining them in more detail.

Root causes

Poverty & unemployment

There is a strong link between poverty and unemployment and the issue of kidnapping in Nigeria. Recent rates indicate that almost 46% of Nigerians live in poverty, [iii] and this includes millions of youths who are unemployed and do not benefit from governmental help in any way.

Most of those children did not have access to education, finding their way of living on the streets, where they are most vulnerable. Kidnapping of children is used, besides for political bargains, also for economic gain (kidnapping for ransom), which seems to become more common as the economic gap between rich and poor families grows.

Religious & political factors

Religious differences and the constant tension between the Christian and Islamic citizens are also root causes of the kidnappings. The two religions have been in conflict for generations, thus leading to the abduction of numerous children who were secretly killed in the northern part of the country.

Boko Haram is an extremist terrorist group and their kidnappings are both religious and politically rooted, as declared by their leaders. They mostly target and abduct Christians, as well as people who do not recognize their ideology or political movement.

Methods and tactics of kidnappers

As methods, kidnapping of children can involve the use of offensive gadgets, weapons, specially designed technologies for tracking victims, as well as sensitive information about the targets in order to forcefully take them away from their families and instil fear in their minds. Moreover, kidnapping groups have an impressive organization strategy, in which they are structured on different teams, such as operation teams, guards, tax forces etc.

The reports show that most kidnappers carefully plan their abductions, calculating the costs and benefits of each action. Their preferences on targets vary between different factors that were previously mentioned, such as political, religious, and social backgrounds. This cost for each victim is calculated according to their Kidnap Ransom Value(KRV). In the context of child kidnapping, children from affluent families, with high social status, or from families that have bigger influence may have a higher KRV than others.

Impact on families and society

Child kidnapping can have a devastating effect on families and also on the community, instilling fear and anxiety. Apart from the evident trauma that is inflicted on the past victims, families are also affected. The emotional burden of not knowing the fate or the status of their relative who was abducted is a real trauma, that can cause stress, depression and anxiety in the long-term. Additionally, to the emotional impact, families can also be affected financially, having to face the costs of recovery, treatment or, in the cases of ransom kidnappings, the price they have to pay for having back their children.

On a larger scale, those abductions have also a long-term impact on the local communities. Kidnapped children, especially underaged girls, who can often be victims of other cruel acts, such as slavery, forced marriage and sexual molestation, have a higher impact on society. Thus, from affected families to a local community and later to the whole nation, this issue leads to insecurity, while insecurity leads to political tensions and instability.

Future challenges & solutions

Both present and past governments have tried so far to combat this issue of kidnapping children in Nigeria, through several measures. National and international bodies have collaborated and started several projects, to combat both terrorist threats by the Boko Haram group, and also the criminal activities associated with kidnapping. Other projects were designed to reduce poverty and to increase the quality and accessibility to education, in order to offer children an option and a chance not to end up living on the streets.

More effective solutions in combating this issue are to focus more and pay more attention to the root causes of kidnapping. This could include offering more employment opportunities for youth, investment projects in education, adoption of stricter and more protective laws and regulations and anti-kidnapping measures.

Conclusions

In conclusion, child kidnapping is a serious and complex issue that has different root causes, such as poverty, unemployment, religious and political tensions, and organized criminal group activities. The impact on families and society is enormous, leading to psychological and emotional long-term trauma. Thus, both international and national authorities should take urgent measures and also highlight the importance of international collaboration.

References

[i] See the articles from UNICEF titled “Devastating Reality: 9 Years After Chibok Abductions, Children in Northeast Nigeria Continue to Suffer the Brutal Consequences of Conflict”, and from CBS News “Witnesses in Nigeria say hundreds of children kidnapped in second mass-abduction in less than a week” for more details.

[ii] See the article from Amnesty International “Nigeria: Nine years after Chibok girls’ abducted, authorities failing to protect children”.

[iii] See Bello (2022) for more consideration.

 

 

Seychelles’ Educational Success: A Model for Sub-Saharan Africa?

Written by Zoë Alford

In February this year, the African Union (AU) announced that 2024 would be the “Year of Education”. With the AU working together with UNICEF, it hopes to bring the right to education to every child across the continent, while ensuring life long and resilient education systems (UNICEF, 2024).  

Substantial efforts have already been made in the last 20 years to increase education rates in Africa, with completion rates increasing from 52% to 69% between 2000 and 2022 in primary school (UNICEF, 2024). This impressive achievement means that more children are receiving an education than ever before. Despite this, the out of school population in Africa increased by 12 million between 2015-2020, with one in four school-age children still not in school (UNICEF, 2024). Quality of education is also a major concern, with 9 out of 10 children in sub-Saharan Africa unable to read and understand a simple text by age 10 (UNICEF, 2024). When looking at countries in the region that have transformed their education system, Seychelles emerges as a huge success in ensuring access to quality education for all as a fundamental human right. 

A Benchmark of Excellence

Seychelles’ educational success is underscored by its high literacy rates and strong school attendance. The government mandates free and compulsory education for children up to the age of 16, ensuring that all children, regardless of background, have access to schooling. As of 2021, the literacy rate stood at an impressive 96.9%, with over 90% of children completing their primary education (UNESCO, 2024). These metrics place Seychelles ahead of many of its sub-Saharan peers, highlighting the effectiveness of its education policies. 

Structural Foundations 

The foundation of Seychelles’ educational system lies in its well-structured policy framework. The government has consistently prioritized education, allocating a significant portion of its budget to the sector. In 2021, Seychelles dedicated 5.6% of its GDP to education, a higher rate than OECD members on average, and 2% more on average than its sub-Saharan neighbours (World Bank, 2024). This financial commitment has enabled the development of modern school facilities, updated learning materials, and enhanced the quality and number of teachers. 

One notable aspect of Seychelles’ approach is its emphasis on teacher training and professional development. By establishing thorough training programs, educators are now more prepared to meet the needs of their students. Regular workshops also help teacher’s profession development and their knowledge of the most current and effective educational practices (Campling et al., 2011).  

Inclusion and Equity  

Seychelles’ education system is also characterized by its commitment to inclusion and equity. The government has implemented policies to support children from disadvantaged backgrounds, including those with disabilities. Special education programs and inclusive education policies ensure that all children have the opportunity to learn in an environment that accommodates their needs (UNICEF Data, 2024). Seychelles has also made significant strides in achieving gender parity in its education system. Enrolmentrates for boys and girls are nearly equal and both genders perform equally well in national examinations (Okello, 2023). This achievement is particularly noteworthy in a region where gender disparities in education are often pronounced. 

The success of Seychelles’ education system is closely linked to its broader commitment to human rights. The government views education as a fundamental right and a cornerstone for national development. This perspective is enshrined in the country’s Constitution, which guarantees the right to education for all citizens (Okello, 2023). Curriculum reforms have also been introduced to integrate human rights education, promoting values such as respect, equality, and justice from an early age (UNESCO, 2022). 

Lessons for Other Countries

While Seychelles’ educational achievements are impressive, simply replicating their systemic changes onto other sub-Saharan countries would not guarantee success. Diverse socioeconomic, cultural, and infrastructural factors mean that each nation should consider Seychelles achievements and transfer only effective measures that best suit their country. The progress of Seychelles’ education system is also influenced by its several factors, for example, its small population and relatively high GDP per capita (ISS Africa, 2023). These conditions are not present is several neighbouring countries, that have larger populations and a large portion of the population living in poverty. However, there are several lessons that other countries can learn from Seychelles. By considering the most impactful structural changes in Seychelles, such as funding, teacher quality and progression development, other countries can select and prioritise what would be successful in their local contexts.  

Firstly, the prioritization of education through substantial budget allocations is crucial. While not all countries can afford to allocate such a high percentage of their GDP to education, even a modest increase in funding can significantly improve educational outcomes (World Bank, 2021). Secondly, focussing on teacher quality and professional development is essential for all countries to achieve greater education. Investing in teacher training programs and continuous professional development can enhance the effectiveness of educators, leading to better student performance (Purvis, 2017). Furthermore, policies promoting inclusion and equity can help bridge the educational gap for disadvantaged groups. Ensuring that children from all backgrounds have access to quality education can allows social cohesion and national development. Seychelles’ success in achieving gender parity in education serves as an inspiring example for other countries striving to address gender disparities (African Union, 2023). 

Conclusion 

Seychelles’ education system stands as a testament to the power of commitment, investment, and a human rights-based approach to education. Its success offers valuable lessons for other sub-Saharan countries seeking to improve their educational outcomes. While the replication of Seychelles’ model may not be straightforward, the principles underlying its achievements such as prioritising education, investing in teacher quality, promoting inclusion, and upholding human rights, are universally applicable. By embracing these principles, other countries in the region can take significant steps towards enhancing their education systems, ensuring that future generations are equipped with the knowledge and skills needed to thrive in a globalised world. 

References

Challenges in Sudan’s Education System

Written by Anna Kordesch  

Education stands as a cornerstone of society, with children representing the future of our nation. It is imperative to invest in both their educational environments and their skill development. Such investment not only aligns with moral imperatives but also promises significant contributions to the future GDP of the country.  This statement, made by Owan Watkins, the communication chief at Unicef Sudan, underscores the vital importance of prioritizing education (Guardian, 2022).  

However, despite the recognized significance of education, approximately 6.4 million children in Sudan had their learning disrupted and suspended in April 2023, forcing them to abandon their education altogether. This raises a critical question: how did such a staggering number of children become deprived of their right to education? 

This article aims to address this pressing issue by analyzing the various factors contributing to the high incidence of out-of-school children in Sudan. Furthermore, it seeks to offer policy recommendations to mitigate this crisis. 

The article is structured into three main sections. The first section provides an overview of the general state of education in Sudan. Following this, the second section delves into the specific obstacles hindering schoolchildren in Sudan, which result in their inability to access education. Finally, the third section offers actionable policy recommendations to address these challenges and ensure a brighter educational future for Sudanese children. 

General State of Education in Sudan 


The ongoing political instability and conflict in Sudan have precipitated a dire humanitarian crisis within the country. While the 2020 Juba peace agreement offered a glimmer of hope for peace, its implementation has been uneven across regions, with power struggles exacerbating issues, particularly in the eastern region (Education Cannot Wait, 2022). 

Notably, the city of Darfur has been ravaged by waves of violence stemming from disputes over access to water and essential resources (Education Cannot Wait, 2022). Consequently, educational opportunities have been severely reduced, with only 37% of children in central Darfur able to attend school, leaving a staggering 63% deprived of their right to education. 

According to UNICEF, an estimated 19 million children in Sudan are currently out of school, equating to one in every three children Nationwide. The 6.5 million children whose learning has been disrupted due to violence and insecurity face further challenges as approximately 10,400 schools in conflict-affected areas have been forced to close (UNICEF, 2023).  

Mandeep O’Brien, a UNICEF Country Representative in Sudan, has warned that Sudan is on the brink of the worst education crisis globally. Children in Sudan, enduring the horrors of war for nearly a year, find themselves increasingly torn away from their classrooms, teachers, and friends. Such circumstances threaten to plunge them into a void that damages the future of an entire generation. In addition to the ongoing conflict within the country, Sudan faces a critical shortage of professionally trained teacher (Bent, 2023). This shortage results in an alarming ratio of one teacher attempting to educate anywhere from 77 to 140 children. This challenge is further compounded by a series of climate-induced disasters in recent years, along with the ramifications of the COVID-19 pandemic. These dual crises have not only precipitated dire economic conditions but have also left many struggling with health challenges, exacerbating the humanitarian situation in the country (Education Cannot Wait, 2022). The cumulative impact of these factors is evident in the staggering statistic that 19 million children in Sudan are currently not enrolled in school. 

Given the complexity and multitude of factors contributing to this educational crisis, there is an urgent need to dissect and analyze each cause separately to gain a comprehensive understanding of the gravity of the challenges facing education in Sudan. 

Violence and Conflict

The conflict that erupted on April 15th, 2023, between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) initially centered in Khartoum but swiftly escalated to engulf the western regions of the country, notably Darfur, resulting in widespread devastation. This conflict has led to a significant influx of forced displacement, both internally and across borders. By August 2023, over 3.6 million individuals have been internally displaced, including 1.4 million school-aged children (ReliefWeb, 2023).  

The impact on education has been profound, with more than half of the children enrolled in schools in conflict-affected states—approximately 6.5 million—being compelled to abandon their educational pursuits and learning centers. This alarming trend poses considerable risks, including heightened dropout rates, jeopardizing their safety and protection, and depriving them of a secure and conducive learning environment. 

The longer children remain out of school, the greater the likelihood that they will continue to be excluded from education and miss out on crucial psychological support. In Sudan, children are increasingly vulnerable to being coerced into early marriages, child labor, trafficking, as well as various forms of violence and exploitation. Beyond the physical dangers they face, the absence of access to life-saving assistance services within schools, such as meals, safe drinking water, hygiene facilities, and social interactions with peers and teachers, severely impairs their educational and overall experiences (ReliefWeb, 2023).   

It is widely recognized that education serves not only as a platform for imparting knowledge but also as a means of socializing children and instilling in them the norms and values necessary for integration into society. Therefore, the denial of education not only deprives children of essential learning but also undermines their development and ability to thrive in their communities as well as integrate them into the Sudanese society.  

 
Girls in Sudan are particularly vulnerable amid the ongoing violent conflict, often becoming victims of sexual abuse within their homes due to the absence of protective school environments (ReliefWeb, 2023). Additionally, inadequate hygiene and sanitation facilities in their homes further exacerbate their challenges, as they are accustomed to relying on the hygiene resources provided at school. 

The repercussions of girls’ inability to regularly attend school are profound and contribute to South Sudan having some of the lowest educational indicators globally (Girls’ Education South Sudan). For instance, only 16% of females aged 15 and above are literate, compared to 40% of males. This stark disparity underscores the urgent need to address the barriers preventing girls’ access to education and to create supportive environments that enable their participation. 

Cultural Norms

As depicted above, the challenges that women and girls’ education in Sudan face are multifaceted. This section will delve into some of the primary barriers beyond the prevalent violence in the country. One significant obstacle is the presence of unfavorable socio-cultural attitudes and practices that hinder the enrollment of girls and women in primary and higher education. 

These unfavorable socio-cultural attitudes and practices reinforce the notion that a woman’s or girl’s value is determined by the amount of bride price or dowry she can bring to her family upon marriage. Given that a majority of the population lives below the poverty line, marrying off a daughter is often seen as a means for families to obtain economic resources. This practice is further perpetuated by the reality that, for many Sudanese parents, sending their daughter or son to school is not truly considered a viable option. 

Environmental Crisis

 
Sudan is grappling with a multitude of environmental, social, and natural resource challenges, including deforestation, land degradation, loss of biodiversity and habitat, and pollution of air, land, and water. These issues have resulted in conflicts over dwindling natural resources, food insecurity, and inadequate waste management, as outlined by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (United Nations).  

The impact of climate-induced disasters on education is profound, with nearly half of learners enrolled in basic education attending schools lacking access to electricity (El Din Daoud Abd El Rhman, 15, 2022). Heavy flooding, particularly devastating during August and September 2022, destroyed over 600 schools, according to the Sudanese Education Ministry. Many of these schools now stand as mere shells of buildings, devoid of basic amenities such as furniture, running water, or toilets. Furthermore, the severity of climate-related disasters has forced 171 schools to serve as emergency shelters for displaced populations (ReliefWeb, 2023).  

Given the reliance of particularly girls on schools for access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities, the unavailability of such resources due to climate and violence-induced disasters further exacerbates the challenges faced by Sudanese communities. For girls schools play pivotal role in their lives, that if taken away will have far reaching consequences for them  (Education Cannot Wait, 2022). 

Teacher Shortage


Due to the ongoing civil war and economic downturn in Sudan, there has been a significant increase in the shortage of teachers. The deteriorating economic conditions in the country have rendered teachers’ salaries an unaffordable luxury for the Sudanese government (Oblewski, 2022). Consequently, many teachers opt to leave voluntary positions in pursuit of more financially secure careers, resulting in a scarcity of educators and causing numerous children to miss out on essential lessons. The situation is dire for many teachers, with some reporting that an entire year’s work may not even yield earnings surpassing $100. This shortage of educators often leads to one teacher being responsible for instructing classes comprising as many as 77 students, drastically compromising the quality of education (Windle Trust International).  

Furthermore, UNESCO’s findings indicate that only approximately 35% of primary school teachers in Sudan receive any form of training. Thus, even if children manage to avoid being drawn into the violent conflict and attend school, there is no guarantee that they will receive the quality education necessary to realize their full potential and break the cycle of poverty. The lack of teachers is compounded by a chronic underinvestment by the Sudanese government in its educational institutions. Addressing these systemic issues is crucial for improving educational outcomes and providing children with the opportunities they need to thrive. 

Underinvestment in Schools

 
Sudan’s allocation of a mere 9% of its total public expenditure to education has resulted in a shortage of schools and inadequate instructional materials (UNICEF Sudan, 7, 2021). This chronic underinvestment has led to a general lack of quality in the education system. The repercussions of this underinvestment are evident in the findings of the 2018 National Learning Assessment (NLA), which examined learning outcomes among third-grade students. While there have been some improvements in literacy levels, overall learning outcomes remain poor. Many children still struggle to read simple, familiar words. In mathematics, less than half of the children were able to correctly complete a basic addition exercise, and even fewer could carry out more complex level two addition exercises. These findings underscore the urgent need for increased investment in education to enhance learning outcomes and provide children with the foundational skills they need for future success (UNICEF Sudan, 7, 2021). 

Financial Burden

Another significant barrier hindering children from accessing education is the financial burden placed on parents. Despite the desire of many parents to send their children to school, rising education costs have made it increasingly unaffordable for families. Education is not only one of the most expensive national services but also one of the most challenging to maintain, adapt, and administer (El Hag Ali, 68, 1960). 

The combination of direct and indirect costs associated with education, such as school fees, uniforms, and school materials, serves as a deterrent for parents considering enrolling their children in school. Instead, some families opt to send their children to work to contribute to household income. While the Constitution of the Republic of North Sudan stipulates that basic education should be free, the reality is far from it. Primary and secondary schools often impose high fees on parents, further exacerbating financial barriers to education access (Girl’s Education South Sudan). 

Possibles Policies to be implemented

Given the current underdeveloped state of Sudan’s infrastructure, particularly in remote areas, the education system falls short of international standards. The following section will outline several policy recommendations to address these challenges: 

  1. Investment in Research: Allocating funding for education research in Sudan is crucial to address information gaps in key areas such as access, quality, and the psychosocial impact of conflict on students, teachers, and communities. Research-based policy interventions can help advocate for the importance of continuous and quality education, fostering awareness and support among stakeholders. 
  1. Increased Community Engagement: Policymakers, researchers, and international non-governmental organizations should collaborate closely with local communities to understand their unique educational needs and challenges. By actively seeking genuine feedback from communities, interventions can become more responsive to pressing needs, leading to more effective outcomes. 
  1. Support for Teacher Employment and Training: Enhancing support for teacher employment and training is essential for improving education quality in Sudan. Effective training programs for teachers, including those teaching displaced students in refugee host countries, can prepare educators to provide psychosocial support, adapt curricula, and foster inclusive, conflict-sensitive learning environments for all students. 
  1. Infrastructure Development: Increasing funding for infrastructure development is crucial to address the lack of quality educational facilities in Sudan. Building high-quality infrastructure, including formal and informal education institutions, can help preserve educational opportunities and contribute to post-war recovery and stability. By providing a foundation for rebuilding communities and societies, improved infrastructure plays a vital role in enhancing educational access and quality (EIAsad et al., 2023). 

By implementing these policy recommendations, Sudan can work towards addressing the challenges facing its education system and improving educational outcomes for all its citizens, particularly those in remote and conflict-affected areas. 

References 

Follow-up to the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls’ country visits to Kyrgyzstan, Romania, Greece, Poland, Honduras, Chad, Samoa, Kuwait and Hungary

Presented by Ariel Ozdemir, Luna Plet and Olimpia Guidi

The Lenca, indigenous to southwestern Honduras and northeastern El Salvador, reside in approximately 50 villages within a 100-km radius of La Esperanza, the capital city of the mountainous Intibucá department. 1 Most of these villages find themselves on the outskirts of the public education system due to factors such as poverty, age, geographic isolation, gender, and ethnicity. These circumstances collectively contribute to the difficulty in accessing education for many inhabitants.
The educational hurdles for Lenca girls in Honduras, especially in regions like San Francisco de Opalaca, are intricate and deeply influenced by socio-economic, cultural, and geographical factors. These challenges are marked by restricted access to education due to economic constraints, particularly affecting girls pursuing primary education. Gender-sensitive education proves to be a critical aspect of the struggles faced by Lenca girls. Prevailing patriarchal norms pose obstacles to their educational opportunities.
Concerns about the quality of education in public schools, notably in regions like San Francisco de Opalaca, are pronounced. Challenges include limited access to junior high schools in most villages and the geographic obstacles that impede education beyond grade 6. 2 Inadequacies in the education infrastructure, such as a shortage of teachers and insufficient facilities, further hinder the provision of quality education for Lenca girls. Furthermore, with a literacy rate of 30-50%, the Lenca population typically spends an average of only four years in school. 3 This low educational attainment contributes to a pervasive sense of inferiority and a lack of confidence in advocating for a democratic and civil society.
The need for revamping the curriculum to address gender equality, stereotypes, and violence is evident. Emphasis is placed on incorporating human rights workshops to create awareness about gender, cultural, educational, and employment equality. 4 This approach strives to foster an inclusive and supportive educational environment, empowering Lenca girls and addressing societal challenges they encounter.

education for disadvantaged communities . 21 Women and girls, already facing obstacles in pursuing education, find themselves further marginalised by the privatisation of schooling . 22
Consider the challenges faced by promising young students in La Esperanza who experience increased fees due to their schools’ privatisation, leading to their education’s abandonment. This educational setback not only perpetuates the cycle of poverty but also underscores the gendered impact of privatisation on educational opportunities for women and girls.
Expanding on the educational aspect, it’s essential to recognise that privatisation can lead to a reduction in educational resources. Privatised institutions may prioritise profit over educational quality, leaving women in poverty with fewer educational support systems. This, in turn, perpetuates systemic disadvantages, limiting the potential for upward mobility through education.
Healthcare Challenges
Privatisation in the healthcare sector can pose significant challenges for vulnerable populations, particularly women. As essential healthcare services become privatised, the financial burden on impoverished women intensifies, limiting their access to crucial medical support. The lack of affordable healthcare options further entrenches gender disparities in health outcomes . 23

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References

1 Susan Stone, “El Maestro En Casa,” El Maestro en Casa, accessed January 20, 2024, https://lencaedu.wordpress.com/
2 Wanda Bedard, “2009 – Honduras,” 60 million girls, accessed January 20, 2024, https://60millionsdefilles.org/en/our-projects/2009-honduras/
3 Susan Stone, “El Maestro En Casa,” El Maestro en Casa, accessed January 20, 2024, https://lencaedu.wordpress.com/
4 Wanda Bedard, “2009 – Honduras,” 60 million girls, accessed January 20, 2024, https://60millionsdefilles.org/en/our-projects/2009-honduras/

21 Edwards Jr, D. B., Moschetti, M., & Caravaca, A. (2023). Globalisation and privatisation of education in Honduras—Or the need to reconsider the dynamics and legacy of state formation. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 44(4), 635-649. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01596306.2020.1852181
22 Murphy-Graham, E. (2007). Promoting participation in public life through secondary education: evidence from Honduras. Prospects, 37(1), 95-111. Available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11125-007-9013-2
23 Hasemann Lara, J. E. (2023). Health Sector Reform in Honduras: Privatisation as Institutional Bad Faith. Medical Anthropology, 42(1), 62-75. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01459740.2022.2125388

Addressing Comprehensive Educational Challenges in São Tomé and Príncipe

Written by Liam Mariotti

São Tomé and Príncipe is a small island nation off the western coast of Central Africa, with a population of 220 000 people and a surface area of 964 square kilometers. Its issues stem mainly from the lack of economic and social capital within the country, a common feature across the African continent, compounded by the geographic isolation and remoteness of the island. The country grapples with numerous educational challenges that hinder its socio-economic progress.  This article delves into the key issues facing the education system in São Tomé and Príncipe and tries to identify some feasible solutions that can improve the conditions of education and the opportunities it can provide to young Santomeans. 

Education system 

   The first topic that will be discussed is the education system. São Tomé and Príncipe’s education system comprises pre-primary, primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 14, but despite this mandate, many children still face barriers to accessing formal schooling.

  • Pre-Primary Education: Pre-primary education is available for children ages 3 to 6, although attendance rates are relatively low due to limited infrastructure and resources. Pre-primary education aims to provide a foundation for learning and development, preparing children for primary school.
  • Primary Education: Primary education in São Tomé and Príncipe typically spans six years, starting at age 6. The curriculum includes subjects such as Portuguese language, mathematics, science, social studies, and physical education. However, challenges such as overcrowded classrooms, insufficient teaching materials, and a shortage of trained teachers impact the quality of primary education.
  • Secondary Education: Secondary education consists of two cycles: a lower secondary cycle (grades 7 to 9) and an upper secondary cycle (grades 10 to 12). While completion rates for primary education have improved in recent years, enrollment in secondary education remains low, particularly in rural areas. The curriculum at the secondary level focuses on academic subjects as well as technical and vocational education to prepare students for further studies or entry into the workforce.
  •  Tertiary Education: Tertiary education in São Tomé and Príncipe is limited, with a few institutions offering higher education programs. The University of São Tomé and Príncipe, established in 2008, is the country’s primary institution of higher learning. Tertiary education opportunities are limited, and many students pursue higher education abroad due to the lack of diverse academic programs and research opportunities domestically.

General issues

The primary challenge to education in São Tomé and Príncipe is the limited access to it, particularly in rural areas. The country’s remote geographical location, coupled with insufficient infrastructure and transportation networks, makes it difficult for many children to attend school regularly. Additionally, poverty often forces families to prioritize immediate economic needs over education, further exacerbating the problem.

While access to education is crucial, ensuring quality is equally important. São Tomé and Príncipe struggles with inadequate resources, poorly trained teachers, and outdated curricula, leading to subpar educational outcomes. Moreover, the language barrier, as the official language of instruction is Portuguese, presents a significant challenge for students, many of whom speak local dialects at home. Gender disparities persist in São Tomé and Príncipe, with girls facing greater barriers to education compared to boys. Societal norms, early marriage, and traditional gender roles often restrict girls’ access to schooling, perpetuating a cycle of poverty and inequality. Furthermore, São Tomé and Príncipe’s economy faces numerous challenges, including limited fiscal resources and dependence on foreign aid. Budgetary constraints often result in underinvestment in education, hindering efforts to improve infrastructure, recruit qualified teachers, and provide essential learning materials.  Retaining qualified teachers in São Tomé and Príncipe is also a significant challenge due to various  factors such as low salaries, inadequate professional development opportunities, and difficult working conditions. Many teachers leave the profession or seek opportunities abroad, leading to a shortage of experienced educators and impacting the quality of education.

The country faces challenges in ensuring inclusive education for children with disabilities, marginalized communities, and those from disadvantaged backgrounds. Limited resources, lack of specialized support services, and social stigma contribute to the exclusion of these groups from educational opportunities. Effective governance and policy implementation are critical for addressing educational challenges and driving reform in São Tomé and Príncipe. However, governance issues such as corruption, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and political instability can hinder the effective implementation of education policies and initiatives. São Tomé and Príncipe’s education system should not only focus on providing formal schooling but also prioritize lifelong learning and skills development opportunities for individuals of all ages, equipping students with relevant skills and competencies is essential for their personal development and future success in a rapidly changing world.

Thus, to sum up, Sao Tomé’s education system is plagued by a lack of economic resources, which translate into lack of opportunity, for both students and educators, and an incapacity to govern effectively. The lack of social capital also is a major issue as it is very difficult to find skilled individuals who can educate others. The next section will focus on potential solutions to these issues.

Possible solutions

Strengthening governance structures, enhancing transparency and accountability mechanisms, and promoting participatory decision-making processes can improve the effectiveness of education governance in São Tomé and Príncipe. Additionally, fostering collaboration between government agencies, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders can facilitate coordinated efforts to address educational challenges.

To enhance access to education, the government and relevant stakeholders must invest in improving infrastructure, including building schools and enhancing transportation networks, especially in rural areas. Furthermore, targeted initiatives such as school feeding programs and scholarship opportunities can help alleviate the financial burden on families and encourage greater enrollment. Addressing the quality of education requires comprehensive reforms, including teacher training programs to enhance pedagogical skills and proficiency in Portuguese. Additionally, curriculum modernization aligned with the country’s socio-economic needs and cultural context is essential. Investing in educational technology and digital resources can also enhance learning outcomes and prepare students for the demands of the modern workforce.

Empowering girls through targeted interventions, such as awareness campaigns promoting the importance of girls’ education and providing support to families, can help break down these barriers. Implementing policies that promote gender equality in schools, including the recruitment of female teachers and the provision of menstrual hygiene facilities, is crucial. Moreover, addressing underlying socio-cultural norms through community engagement and advocacy efforts can foster a more inclusive and equitable educational environment.

While the government plays a central role in addressing economic challenges, partnerships with international organizations, NGOs, and the private sector are vital for mobilizing additional resources and expertise. Sustainable funding mechanisms, coupled with transparent governance and accountability mechanisms, can ensure that education remains a priority in national development agendas.

Implementing strategies to improve teacher retention and motivation, such as increasing salaries, providing ongoing professional development, and creating supportive working environments, can help attract and retain talented educators. Additionally, recognizing and rewarding teachers for their contributions to education can boost morale and job satisfaction.

Promoting inclusive education policies and practices that accommodate the diverse needs of all learners is essential. This includes providing access to inclusive classrooms, adapting teaching methodologies to meet individual learning styles, and offering support services such as assistive technologies and special education programs. Expanding access to non-formal and vocational education programs, promoting entrepreneurship and technical skills training, and fostering a culture of lifelong learning can empower individuals to pursue diverse educational pathways and adapt to evolving socio-economic demands.

Conclusion

In conclusion, addressing the comprehensive educational challenges in São Tomé and Príncipe requires a multifaceted approach that encompasses various aspects of access, quality, equity, governance, and lifelong learning. While the country faces significant hurdles in providing universal and high-quality education, there are viable solutions that can pave the way for sustainable development and positive societal transformation.

Investments in infrastructure, teacher training, and curriculum reform are essential to improve access to education and enhance learning outcomes. Additionally, efforts to promote gender equality, inclusive education, and community engagement can foster a more equitable and supportive educational environment for all learners.

Furthermore, addressing governance issues, including corruption and bureaucratic inefficiencies, is critical to ensuring effective policy implementation and resource allocation in the education sector. Strengthening partnerships between government agencies, civil society organizations, and international partners can facilitate coordinated efforts to address educational challenges and drive meaningful change.

By prioritizing education as a fundamental pillar of national development and investing in the well-being and potential of its youth, São Tomé and Príncipe can unlock opportunities for socio-economic progress and sustainable growth. Through collective action and sustained commitment from stakeholders at all levels, the transformative power of education can be harnessed to build a brighter future for generations to come.

In closing, addressing the comprehensive educational challenges in São Tomé and Príncipe is not only a moral imperative but also a strategic investment in the country’s future prosperity and well-being. By working together to overcome these challenges, São Tomé and Príncipe can realize its full potential and create a more inclusive, equitable, and prosperous society for all.

References

Cover Image: Children in São Tomé e Príncipe via Wikimedia Commons