Croatia was last reviewed in May 2020. The country received 229 recommendations, 198 of which were supported. Ten of the recommendations pertained to the Right to Education, with 9 being supported. [viii]
Among the most prevalent topics addressed in the recommendations were the improvements in the accessibility of education for individuals with disabilities, the provision of adequate living conditions and access to education for the Roma national minority, and the enhancement of inclusivity and equal opportunities in education. [ix]
Additionally, implementing a curriculum on age-appropriate and comprehensive sexuality education, to be provided throughout schooling, was recommended by Fiji and Iceland. [x]
The 2020 Compilation on Croatia included observations and recommendations from several international bodies regarding the country’s educational system. The most prevalent topics in the Compilation were recommendations to encourage non-traditional career paths and diversifying academic and career options for both genders, accelerating the Croatian language course application process to increase unaccompanied and separated children’s access to education, and ensuring Roma children receive quality education in their mother tongue and eradicate segregation of Roma children in the educational system. Furthermore, UNESCO reported that Croatia had developed the National Roma Inclusion Strategy (2013-2020), which prioritized education to increase Roma children’s inclusion and educational quality to the national average. [xi]
The 2020 Summary of Stakeholders’ submissions on Croatia included recommendations from stakeholders, such as: ensuring effective and non-discriminatory access to education for asylum-seeking children; addressing the limited access to education for people with disabilities; improving the quality of sexual education and decreasing the influence of the Catholic Church on educational policies; eliminating segregation of Roma children in the educational system; and removing discriminatory content from textbooks and addressing discrimination against minorities in schools. [xii]
Croatia’s 2020 National report for the UN-UPR highlights the country’s efforts in addressing many of these challenges. Firstly, the Anti-Discrimination Act and the CPA prohibit all forms of discrimination, with national documents reinforcing protection against discrimination. Furthermore, education is provided for 29,868 students with developmental disabilities in regular and special primary and secondary schools. The National Strategy for the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities (2017-2020) promotes universal design principles, enhances access to public services and transportation, and trains education professionals to work effectively with individuals with disabilities. [xiii]
Additionally, education in the language and script of national minorities is guaranteed by the Constitution, the Constitutional Act on the Rights of National Minorities (CARNM), and the Act on Education in Languages and Scripts of National Minorities. Equal access to education for Roma children is ensured, with an annual allocation of over HRK 10 million for Roma education. [xiv]
Finally, unaccompanied children have the right to education under the same conditions as Croatian nationals, supported by the protocol on the Treatment of Unaccompanied Children (2018). [xv]
[xi]Human Rights Council and Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2020. “Compilation on Croatia.” Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g20/063/46/pdf/g2006346.pdf.
[xii] Human Rights Council, Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, and Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2020. “Summary of Stakeholders’ Submissions on Croatia.” Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g20/053/56/pdf/g2005356.pdf.
Out of the 23 recommendations concerning the right to education, four specifically addressed the school dropout rates. Including the recommendations made by Japan, Cyprus, the Holy See, and Austria, which focus on reducing dropout rates and ensuring inclusive, equitable access to education, specifically those outlined in 134.133, 134.134, 134.135, and 134.199.
The UPR Midterm report indicates that Bulgaria has implemented recommendations to reduce school dropout rates by establishing a Mechanism for joint work among institutions. This initiative formed 1,222 teams nationwide to identify at-risk children and address the causes of dropout. Consequently, 1,324 previously unenrolled children were enrolled in schools during the 2022/2023 academic year. [vi]
Furthermore, seven recommendations focused on the Roma children’s right to education, including recommendations 134.132, 134.159, 134.190, 134.195, 134.202, 134.204, and 134.207, made by Nepal, the USA, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Croatia, France, and Iran. These recommendations emphasize protecting Roma children’s right to education by addressing discrimination, increasing preschool attendance, reducing dropout rates, and ensuring equal access to quality education and social services.
The UPR Midterm report indicates that Bulgaria has made significant progress in implementing recommendations to improve educational opportunities for Roma children. This effort is part of the National Strategy for Equality, Inclusion, and Participation of the Roma (2021–2030). Key initiatives include targeted programs designed to increase access to education for Roma children, campaigns aimed at reducing stereotypes, and investments in educational infrastructure.
Five of the recommendations concerning the right to education were regarding people with disabilities, including 134.215, 134.219, 134.220, 134.212, and 134.183 from Japan, Ethiopia, Greece, Mexico, and Laos, which focus on ensuring that children and young people with disabilities have access to inclusive education.
The UPR Midterm report highlights that efforts to improve access to education for children with disabilities are ongoing. Current measures include legislative reforms, enhanced teacher training, and initiatives aimed at making mainstream schools more accessible. Bulgaria is also focused on data collection to monitor progress.
Bulgaria’s national report states that the Ministry of Education and Science recorded a 40% reduction in dropout rates due to the Mechanism for Inter-institutional Work on Enrolment and Inclusion. [vii]
The Mechanism for Inter-institutional Work on Enrolment and Inclusion coordinates efforts across various institutions to identify, support, and reintegrate students at risk of dropping out. By engaging with social services, schools, and child protection agencies, it addresses issues such as poor attendance and provides targeted support to vulnerable families. [viii]
[vi] Republic of Bulgaria and United Nations Human Rights Council, “INTERIM REPORT on the Implementation of the Recommendations Received During the Third Universal Periodic Review.”
Belarus was last reviewed in May 2020. The country received 284 recommendations, of which 143 were supported and 141 noted. Regarding the Right to Education, 11 recommendations were made, all of which were supported by the state. [vi]
Among the topics of remarks were to continue efforts to ensure equal access to education, including primary one, which is free of charge, to strengthen the rights of people with disabilities, to improve school attendance among Roma children, and to verify that the rights of women and children are protected.[vii]
The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination expressed concern over the significant percentage of Roma children not attending school, despite the country’s high literacy rate. The Human Rights Committee recommended that Belarus strengthen its efforts to guarantee equal access to education and adequate standards for all children in the country. [viii]
The Committee on the Rights of the Child and UNESCO encouraged Belarus to continue strengthening its policies for people with disabilities to ensure inclusive education and integration for everyone, particularly in higher education. [ix]
Following these recommendations, Belarus implemented a 5-year education modernization project, aiming to improve the teaching and learning environment and the information on labor market relevance of higher education. This plan aimed to improve learning conditions for children with disabilities and foster a more inclusive environment. [x]
The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women raised concerns about certain state institutions of higher education, including the Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, which impose higher admission score requirements for female students and limit the number of women who can be admitted to the institution. [xi]
Belarus introduced policies emphasizing equal access to education for both genders, with a focus on increasing women’s participation in higher education. There is an increasing trend of women enrolling in tertiary and secondary education compared to men, constituting 56% of all students. [xii]
[vii]United Nations Human Rights Council. Compilation on Belarus: Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. A/HRC/WG.6/36/BLR/2. Geneva: United Nations General Assembly, 27 February 2020.
[viii]United Nations Human Rights Council. Compilation on Belarus: Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. A/HRC/WG.6/36/BLR/2. Geneva: United Nations General Assembly, 27 February 2020.
[ix]United Nations Human Rights Council. Compilation on Belarus: Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. A/HRC/WG.6/36/BLR/2. Geneva: United Nations General Assembly, 27 February 2020.
[x]World Bank. Belarus Higher Education Modernization Project: Combined Project Information Documents / Integrated Safeguards Datasheet (PID/ISDS). Appraisal Stage, October 14, 2019. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.
[xi]United Nations Human Rights Council. Compilation on Belarus: Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. A/HRC/WG.6/36/BLR/2. Geneva: United Nations General Assembly, 27 February 2020.
Broken Chalk has compiled the report that follows. This is to be a stakeholder contribution to the Fourth Cycle of the Universal Periodic Review (UPR) for Andorra. This report will focus on education in Andorra, as Broken Chalk aims to combat human rights violations within the educational sector.
In the third Universal Periodic Review (UPR) cycle, Andorra received 126 recommendations, 60 of which were supported. Three of the recommendations were regarding education. Andorra has supported all three recommendations, demonstrating its determination and commitment to increasing access to high-quality education. It is worth noting that Andorra’s support for three recommendations in the third cycle represents an improvement over the second cycle, where it supported only two and mentioned the third. [vi]
The recommendations included providing full access to various educational fields, as well as social care and healthcare, for children, adolescents, and people with disabilities. Moreover, the recommendations also advocate for equal participation of girls and women in STEM fields and providing women at risk of trafficking an opportunity to pursue their studies and participate in reintegration programs. [vii]
Andorra’s national report for UN-UPR highlights their decision to prioritize children and education by enacting the Qualified Act No. 14/2019. The act was set to safeguard children’s rights and promote their well-being through creating a safe environment and addressing any potential risks that might impact their healthy development. Moreover, the act mandates the development of a national plan for children and adolescents within two years of its enactment. Andorra has made significant strides in enhancing education and youth development. Developing a national strategy that guarantees access to free, high-quality public education within any of the country’s three education systems. [viii]
Andorra started promoting development skills that foster values such as inclusivity, justice, respect and tolerance. The University of Andorra and the Ministry of Education have collaborated to modernize the teacher training programs and added a new master’s degree program for teachers. New modules were created in collaboration with the Council of Europe through long-distance learning. Prevention workshops were set up in schools to address various societal issues. [ix]
In response to the recommendation regarding the rights of people with disabilities, Act No. 27/2017 was enacted. Allowing persons with disabilities to benefit from various social and health services in education, employment and leisure. [x]
[ix]European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice, 2024. The European Higher Education Area in 2024: Bologna Process Implementation Report. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
Il presente articolo approfondisce i punti di forza, le debolezze e le sfide del sistema scolastico svizzero. Dapprima, viene fornita un’introduzione della struttura e del disegno istituzionale del sistema. Si procede in seguito ad analizzare il sistema attraverso le raccomandazioni dell’Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i diritti umani e gli indicatori dell’OCSE che riguardano il paese. Descriviamo il percorso narrativo che verrà intrapreso affinché il lettore possa essere facilitato nella comprensione dell’articolo.
La Svizzera è uno stato federale plurilingue con un sistema scolastico decentrato. I 26 cantoni (stati) sono responsabili dello sviluppo educativo nei loro rispettivi territori. Mentre i cantoni sono responsabili dell’istruzione obbligatoria, il governo federale li supporta nella promozione dell’istruzione post-obbligatoria (scuole di orientamento generale e professionale, corsi di formazione, università). In linea con il principio di decentramento, i cantoni e i comuni finanziano il 90% della spesa pubblica per l’istruzione.
La Confederazione e i cantoni condividono l’obbligo di assicurare un sistema educativo di elevata qualità e accessibilità. Per adempiere a tale obbligo, la Svizzera ha adottato un sistema di monitoraggio complesso che identifica le sfide chiave e valuta i progressi nel raggiungimento degli obiettivi delle politiche pubbliche. Lo “Swiss Education Report”, che viene pubblicato ogni quattro anni, è uno dei risultati di tale processo di monitoraggio.
Nell’ istruzione obbligatoria, il 95% degli allievi frequenta una scuola pubblica nella propria città. Non esiste una libera scelta nella selezione dell’istituto per l’istruzione obbligatoria, l’ammissione dipende dall’ indirizzo di residenza della famiglia. L’ istruzione pubblica obbligatoria è gratuita. In molte zone, le scuole pubbliche sono utili a promuovere l’integrazione sociale tra alunni. Infatti, bambini provenienti da diversi contesti sociali, linguistici e culturali frequentano la stessa scuola.
Ogni cantone gestisce il programma scolastico e alcuni aspetti istituzionali e strutturali, come le ore settimanali di lezione attribuite alle materie e alle classi. Non esiste un programma scolastico nazionale. Tuttavia, la costituzione federale impone ai cantoni di coordinare e armonizzare i loro sistemi scolastici in quanto a struttura e obiettivi. Ad esempio, per l’istruzione obbligatoria, i cantoni hanno sviluppato ed introdotto programmi comuni su base linguistico-regionale. In base alla regione, la lingua di istruzione è il tedesco, il francese, l’italiano o il romancio. Tradizionalmente, l’apprendimento della lingua è molto importante in Svizzera. Gli studenti imparano una seconda lingua ufficiale del paese così come l’inglese durante gli anni di istruzione obbligatoria.
La Svizzera ha un sistema scolastico di orientamento professionale molto solido. Vengono offerti principalmente programmi professionali di livello secondario superiore, i quali combinano un apprendistato con uno o due giorni di lezioni a scuola, e programmi professionali di livello terziario.
La maggior parte dei giovani si iscrive alle scuole professionali dopo aver terminato l’istruzione obbligatoria. Ciò li aiuta ad avere un’esperienza solida e pratica di molte occupazioni lavorative (ci sono circa 230 professioni tra cui poter scegliere). Circa un terzo di coloro che hanno terminato il periodo di istruzione obbligatoria sceglie di continuare i propri studi iscrivendosi ad una scuola secondaria superiore di maturità o specializzata, in preparazione ad una futura iscrizione all’università.
I meccanismi dell’Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i diritti umani: UPR della Svizzera
L’Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite per l’Educazione, la Scienza e la Cultura (UNESCO) ha rimarcato che la Svizzera ha adottato molte misure al fine di irrobustire il diritto all’istruzione. Ciò nonostante, ha sottolineato che i minori richiedenti asilo e senza documenti hanno difficoltà ad ottenere l’accesso all’istruzione di livello secondario. L’ UNESCO ha raccomandato alla Svizzera di rafforzare le politiche pubbliche affinché i bambini di origine straniera godano di un’istruzione di qualità e i bambini richiedenti asilo e senza documenti possano accedere alle scuole, specialmente a quelle di livello secondario. Il Comitato sui diritti dell’infanzia ha fatto raccomandazioni simili. Il Comitato per l’eliminazione della discriminazione contro le donne ha invitato la Svizzera a promuovere maggiormente la diversificazione delle opportunità educative disponibili per tutti gli alunni, di ogni genere, e a rivedere il materiale scolastico a livello cantonale e municipale allo scopo di assicurare una prospettiva di genere nell’ insegnamento. Ha anche suggerito allo stato di elaborare nuove strategie per combattere gli stereotipi discriminatori e le barriere strutturali suscettibili di impedire alle giovani ragazze di progredire oltre l’istruzione secondaria e di scegliere percorsi di studio tradizionalmente intrapresi da uomini.
Il report “Education at a Glance 2021” e gli indicatori dell’OCSE
Pari opportunità per gli studenti a prescindere dai contesti socioeconomici di provenienza
Il Programma PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) misura i traguardi scolastici degli studenti con diversi Status Economici, Sociali e Culturali (ESCS). Nel 2018, la percentuale di bambini appartenenti al quartile più basso ESCS che hanno ottenuto il livello 2 del PISA nella lettura era più bassa del 32 % rispetto a quella di coloro che appartenevano al quartile più alto ESCS. Questo divario educativo supera quello medio dell’OCSE, che si aggira intorno al 29 %.
Differenze così significative nei traguardi scolastici possono aggravare le diseguaglianze di reddito. In Svizzera, i dati del 2019 mostrano che il 30% degli adulti tra i 25 e i 64 anni di età che non hanno completato la scuola secondaria superiore, guadagna la metà o meno della metà del reddito mediano. Questa percentuale è maggiore della media OCSE del 27 %.
Diseguaglianze di generenell’istruzione
In quasi tutti i paesi membri dell’OCSE e per tutti i livelli scolastici, le donne di età compresa tra i 25 e i 64 anni guadagnano meno dei loro colleghi di sesso maschile; i loro stipendi corrispondono in media al 76%-78% di quelli degli uomini. Questa percentuale varia di più all’interno dello stesso paese, a seconda del livello d’istruzione posseduto, piuttosto che tra paesi OCSE. Tra i vari gruppi distinti in base al traguardo scolastico, il divario di reddito maggiore tra uomini e donne dello stesso gruppo in Svizzera è riscontrato per le donne che non hanno una certificazione di scuola secondaria superiore. Infatti, queste donne guadagnano solamente il 77 % del reddito degli uomini che, allo stesso modo, non possiedono una certificazione di livello secondario superiore. Le donne che possiedono un titolo d’ istruzione secondario superiore o post-secondario ma non terziario guadagnano l’84 % degli stipendi degli uomini appartenenti al medesimo gruppo.
L’istruzione e l’immigrazione
In media per i paesi dell’OCSE, tra gli adulti che non possiedono un titolo secondario superiore, il 57% dei nativi ha un’occupazione lavorativa, rispetto al 61 % di coloro che sono nati all’estero. In linea con questa tendenza, in Svizzera, il tasso di occupazione per coloro che sono nati all’estero e che non hanno titolo di istruzione secondaria superiore era del 71 % nel 2020, più alto rispetto ai nativi (65 %).
Tra gli adulti con istruzione terziaria, il 92% dei nativi svizzeri e l’84% di coloro che sono nati all’estero hanno un’occupazione lavorativa. Coloro che sono nati all’estero e che sono giunti in Svizzera ad una giovane età hanno vissuto alcuni anni all’interno del sistema scolastico svizzero e ottenuto dei titoli riconosciuti a livello nazionale. Di conseguenza, i loro traguardi lavorativi sono generalmente migliori rispetto a coloro che sono giunti in Svizzera ad una maggiore età e che possedevano già titoli stranieri. In Svizzera, tra i nati all’estero con titolo terziario, il 90% di coloro giunti entro i 15 anni di età ha un lavoro, rispetto all’ 83 % di coloro che sono giunti dopo i 16 anni.
Conclusioni:
Il governo svizzero dovrebbe rafforzare le proprie politiche pubbliche affinché i bambini di origine straniera godano del migliore livello di istruzione possibile e i bambini richiedenti asilo e senza documenti possano accedere all’istruzione, specialmente a quella secondaria; allo stesso modo, dovrebbe promuovere programmi e attività di sensibilizzazione contro la violenza, gli abusi e il bullismo nelle scuole.
Inoltre, è imperative incoraggiare una maggiore diversificazione delle scelte educative per ragazzi e ragazze, rivedere il materiale scolastico a livello cantonale e assicurare che un materiale scolastico basato su una prospettiva di genere sia disponibile in tutti i cantoni per tutte le comunità.
Bibliografia:
Committee on the Rights of the Child. (2021, September 2). Concluding observations on the combined fourth to sixth periodic reports of Switzerland. Last researched on June 2022, from https://uhri.ohchr.org/en/search-human-rights-recommendations
Eurydice (2020). Swiss Educational System. Last Researched on June 2022, from https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/content/switzerland_en
Educational Difficulties for ex-pats in the Netherlands
Written by Alexia Kapsabeli
The Netherlands stands as a popular destination for expatriates due to the many advantages the country has to offer. However, navigating the Dutch educational system poses a significant challenge for expat families and students who attend the many wonderful universities. These difficulties stem from differences in the education structure and system offered to the students, the language barriers, and the housing difficulties.
Dutch Educational System
The Dutch education system is unique as it heavily emphasizes tracking students into academic or vocational paths that start at an early age. (“Education in the Netherlands | Nuffic,” n.d.) At the university level, students must meet the entry requirements to apply and attend university. However, the Dutch universities offer two types of bachelor degrees. The first entails attending a University of Applied Sciences (HBO), which is more of a professional orientation, and the other is an academic university (WO), which focuses on an academic orientation. Additionally, HBO Bachelor’s programs take 4 years (240 ECTS) while the WO Bachelor’s programs take 3 years (180 ECTS). (“What’s the difference between HBO and WO?,” n.d.)
When applying to universities, there are a few challenges that international students may face, this includes the registration process as the Dutch universities have two types of bachelor’s degrees and for many expats, there is no formal process in educating these individuals in their choice.International students are “three times more likely to drop out in their first year of university than Dutch students: 17 percent of international students drop out in their first year, compared with 6 percent of Dutch students.” (Stylianou 2024) This highlights the many challenges that international students face when attending a Duch University.
Additionally, it is vital for students to be made aware of the BSA (binding study advice) that is provided by the universities in the final semester of the student’s first academic year, which determines whether or not the students can move forward with their desired subjects and courses, all depending on how each student performs which is reflected by the number of credits obtained or their grades. Failure to meet the minimum grade or credit requirements results in students receiving a negative BSA, which hinders their ability to move forward in their studies. Furthermore, the standards set out by the Dutch universities lead to students being disheartened as the level of difficulty to meet the requirements is high. Students, too, are faced with severe levels of stress and, as a result, detrimentally affects their mental health. (Stylianou 2024)
Language Barriers
A significant challenge for many internationals is the language barrier; the transition can be quite difficult even in English-speaking international schools as the students struggle to adapt to Dutch society, with an emphasis on many students struggling to understand the educational expectations. The universities, too, do not provide sufficient support to international students, thus emphasising a major challenge that foreign students face.
Due to the influx of international students, understanding and speaking English may be a challenge for these students, and due to the self-study lifestyle offered by the universities, this creates many challenges as these students may feel isolated or experience high levels of stress due to struggling to keep up with their studies due to lack of understanding and comprehension. (“Challenges Faced by International Students in Netherlands” 2023)
Transitioning into the Dutch Society
International students and expatriates often encounter challenges when adapting to a new educational system. Dutch educational institutions emphasize independence, critical thinking, and academic rigor, which can pose significant difficulties, particularly for students hailing from diverse and distinct educational backgrounds. The adjustment process can be especially difficult for international students, as they may experience feelings of loneliness, homesickness, and isolation. Furthermore, the families of these students may share similar sentiments due to their unfamiliarity with the Dutch education system and its unique practices. (European Commission 2022)
It is essential to recognize that the transition period can present a significant cultural adjustment for students. Relocating to another country poses inherent challenges, as differing customs, traditions, and social norms can contribute to an overwhelming experience. (“Challenges Faced by International Students in Netherlands” 2023)
Housing Crisis
The housing crisis in the Netherlands poses a continued and significant challenge for many of the international students. Starting a new life in a foreign country can already be quite challenging however, in the Netherlands, the struggle remains in finding affordable and suitable accommodation. (Walker 2024) The Netherlands continues to face a shortage of student housing due to the high demand, specifically in cities like Utrecht, Rotterdam, Amsterdam, and the Hague. Many of the students experience waiting lists, high rent, and location issues, which places the students in situations to live in temporary conditions such as shared rooms or locations that are far out from where they will attend university. (“The Student Housing Crisis in the Netherlands: How The Hague University of Applied Sciences is Supporting International Students” 2024)
International students may face challenges related to language proficiency and navigating Dutch rental regulations, as landlords often prioritize local tenants. This issue is particularly significant given the ongoing housing crisis in the Netherlands, which continues to attract an increasing number of international students. This will add to the strain and pressure that students are under academically and their transition process into Dutch society.
Conclusion
International students in the Netherlands face significant educational challenges that stem from the unique educational system, language barriers, societal differences, and housing difficulties. Although the Netherlands offers excellent educational opportunities, these difficulties can negatively impact international students’ well-being and mental health throughout their studies. Offering a better support system and addressing these difficulties is vital for ensuring a better quality of life and a better transitioning period for these students.
Cuando pensamos en Colombia en la actualidad, tal vez lo primero que se nos viene a la mente es el infame capo de la droga Pablo Escobar, promocionado en la exitosa serie de Netflix, Narcos; o tal vez el largo conflicto civil de décadas entre el gobierno colombiano y los grupos guerrilleros de izquierda, el Ejército de Liberación Nacional (ELN) o las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (Farc-EP), las cuales firmaron un acuerdo de paz con el gobierno a finales de 2016. A pesar de este contexto, Colombia es el segundo país en el que la mayor cantidad de personas han experimentado un período de crecimiento económico que redijo su pobreza en América Latina. Aclamado como el “milagro colombiano”, y más aún como una “revolución silenciosa” de la educación, Colombia lo ha logrado ampliando los resultados del aprendizaje de los estudiantes, subiendo el listón de la igualdad y la equidad de oportunidades en las escuelas, utilizando la recopilación y el análisis de datos para tomar decisiones informadas y crear políticas, y centrando una mayor cantidad de fondos en ver fructificar las reformas educativas.i
(Fuente: Educación en Colombia: aspectos destacados, OCED, 2016)
Estos logros educativos son, principalmente, el resultado de un control más estricto de las consecuencias de la turbulenta historia de conflictos socio-políticos desde 1948, cuando el candidato presidencial del partido Liberal, Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, fue asesinado y el hecho desató un proceso violento que resultó con el desplazamiento interno de millones de colombianos.ii Dicho control le permitió al gobierno colombiano introducir políticas como “De cero a siempre” en 2010, la cual es hoy el marco común que guía el desarrollo y el bienestar de la primera infancia con un enfoque holístico. Por otra parte, el modelo de “Nueva escuela”, introducido en 2014, amplía la educación rural en las regiones de menos recursos en Colombia, al hacerla más accesible y al enfocarse en la formación de maestros para ofrecer un ambiente estimulante y adaptado al contexto. Y, adicionalmente, el “Currículo 40×40”, un programa implementado por el antiguo secretario de educación de Bogotá, Óscar Sánchez, que incrementó el número de horas en los colegios a 40 en la semana, durante 40 semanas al año, para que los niños puedan participar en actividades extracurriculares, como deporte y arte.iii Estas políticas han aumentado el nivel y la calidad de la educación de los niños colombianos, como lo dejan ver algunas cifras recogidas por la OCED. Por una parte, la participación educativa de la primera infancia y de cuidado (ECED) y la educación terciaria han aumentado de un 40% a un 50%, respectivamente; en cuanto a la tasa de matriculación para menores entre los cero y cinco años, esta pasó de 16% a 41% entre el 2007 y 2013, logrando un incremento en la matriculación bruta del 57% al 76% entre 2002 y 2012.iv Este ha sido el caso en particular para las niñas, quienes entre 1900 y el 2000 vieron aumentar el promedio de años de estudio en un 23%, pasando de 3 a 3,7 años; un aumento en la finalización de su educación secundaria de 37% en 1989 a un 94% para 2011, y su representación en el mercado laboral pasó de un 30% al 43% entre 1990 y 2012.v
Un sistema educativo desigual
A pesar de estas acciones positivas, también es cierto que aún queda un largo camino para que Colombia establezca un sistema de educación basado en la igualdad, sin diferencias entre instituciones públicas y privadas, urbanas y rurales, que provea la misma calidad educativa para todos los estudiantes, y logre tanto el aumento de la matriculación neta y como el mantener la asistencia a lo largo de todo el ciclo de educación de los niños y niñas. En 2017, la organización Children Beyond Our Borders, la cual trabaja por la igualdad de oportunidades en la educación, reportó que 37,2% de estudiantes colombianos no siguen en sus estudios más allá de la enseñanza secundaria superior. Esto ha significado una brecha considerable en el número de colombianos que han obtenido un grado de Ph.D., con una proporción de 7 por cada millón de colombianos; 45,4% de estudiantes se retiraron de la universidad desde 2010, además de aproximadamente un 75% de estudiantes que se retiraron por completo de sus estudios hacia los 17 años; un estimado de 37% de estudiantes empezaron su educación más tarde; y un 41% repitieron por lo menos un grado a la edad de 15 años.vi Con respecto a la educación universitaria, la tasa elevada de abandono se debe principalmente a que el sistema está sobrecargado y fragmentado, pues hace falta un plan de estudios estandarizado que les permita a los estudiantes alcanzar este grado educativo en iguales condiciones, así como los bajos salarios para los profesores, lo que ha provocado una elevada tasa de absentismo. El gobierno colombiano invierte el 4,6% de su PIB en educación, y tan solo 0,5% de este presupuesto se destina a las zonas rurales. Esto podría explicar por qué dos de cada diez estudiantes de zonas rurales no puede acceder a la educación, con lo que se reproduce el vicioso ciclo de pobreza, desempleo y violencia.vii
En 2018, el Programa para la Evaluación Internacional de Alumnos de la OCDE, PISA, observó que más del 70% de estudiantes de enseñanza secundaria superior carecían de conocimientos básicos de lectura, escritura y aritmética, lo que suponía un obstáculo importante para acceder a las universidades que exigen aprobar el examen de acceso estandarizado ICFES. Las pruebas PISA miden los niveles de competencia en inglés, matemáticas, ciencias naturales, ciencias sociales y cívicas en los grados 3, 5, 9 y 11, y los políticos responsables de este sector aún no han logrado resolver el mayor índice de fracaso escolar en escuelas públicas en comparación a las privadas a la hora de presentar los exámenes.viii Unido a esto, a comienzos de la década de 2010 en el país se vivió un período de tensión debido al programa “Ser Pilo Paga”, una iniciativa que redirigía los fondos públicos a instituciones privadas para subsidiar a aproximadamente 32% de los estudiantes con mejores resultados en la prueba estandarizada nacional para sus estudios universitarios. Así, estos estudiantes con los mejores puntajes podían ingresar a universidades acreditadas, en su mayoría privadas, con becas o préstamos financieros. El programa fue suspendido en 2018, cuando un gran número de estudiantes se manifestaron en contra de la desigualdad injusta y le exigieron al presidente del momento, Iván Duque Márquez, aumentar el gasto para las universidades públicas cuyas matrículas seguían siendo una barrera de acceso para muchos.ix
Aún se mantiene el aparente desequilibrio de la demanda, en el sentido de que cada vez más estudiantes colombianos aspiran a una educación superior (con reportes de un crecimiento de 3.600 en 2001 a 6.276 en 2011), mientras a la vez se mantiene un bajo nivel de calidad, representado por lo que se conoce como “universidades de garaje”, instituciones que funcionan a la par con las instituciones de primer nivel que ocupan puestos relativamente altos en las clasificaciones regionales y mundiales.x Esto se ilustra aún más en la esfera de las oportunidades de educación entrante y saliente. Aunque los colombianos son la séptima población más grande que decide estudiar inglés o ingresar a la formación profesional en el extranjero, el país sigue siendo un destino poco atractivo para estudiantes extranjeros, excepto para los estudiantes venezolanos, quienes también enfrentan una barrera significativa.xi
Barreras para los refugiados de Venezuela
La crisis transversal que vive Venezuela desde 2015 ha provocado que millones de personas huyan del colapso social. Para noviembre de 2020, 1,7 millones de venezolanos estaban viviendo en Colombia, de los cuales aproximadamente 460.000 correspondían a menores en edad escolar.xii El gobierno colombiano y la sociedad civil demostraron su mejor lado al garantizar a los refugiados venezolanos acceso a los servicios de salud y escolarizar a casi 200.000 venezolanos en edad escolar, lo cual se facilitó debido a las similitudes culturales y lingüísticas entre ambas poblaciones.xiii No obstante, algunas barreras aún son evidentes en ciudades como Cúcuta, en donde se ha visto un alto número de niños fuera del sistema escolar y desempleo. Se estima que habría 22.350 venezolanos sin estudios de los 93.000 que viven en Cúcuta para 2020, en relación con el total de 361.433 menores colombianos sin estudio a nivel nacional.xiv Los estudiantes venezolanos y colombianos tienen dificultades para obtener habilidades básicas de alfabetización y aritmética, con niveles de 69% y 65%, 61% t 64%, 70% y 68%, y 93%y 94% respectivamente, cayendo por debajo de los niveles de referencia en fluidez lectora oral, capacidad de comprensión de lectura, y problemas sencillos de suma y resta.xv
Otro tema preocupante es el hecho de que los menores venezolanos sin estudios muestran signos más altos de aprendizaje social y emocional (SEL) que sus compañeros escolarizados, con 66% de los venezolanos y 63% de los colombianos respectivamente mostrando empatía en escenarios negativos hipotéticos. El 76% de los menores venezolanos sin estudios y jóvenes con discapacidades son víctimas de bullying escolar.xvi La UNESCO ha reconocido que otras barreras indirectas incluyen el costo del transporte, los uniformes, la alimentación y los útiles escolares, así como el hecho de que maestros provenientes de Venezuela se enfrentan a retos burocráticos para homologar sus credenciales y que estas sean reconocidas por las autoridades colombianas, lo que podría potencialmente reducir la falta de personal educativo y el hacinamiento en los colegios.xvii De acuerdo con el Comité Internacional de Rescate, estas barreras son el resultado de la sobrecarga al sistema educativo colombiano. Aunque esta organización también aplaude el acceso como un primer paso, pero aboga por mayor atención para que se incluyan a los menores sin estudio, combinando herramientas académicas y de aprendizaje social y emocional (SEL), aumentando la formación docente, y adhiriendo a la Ley de Convivencia de 2013, una directiva que busca que se implementen comités de co-existencia para todas las partes interesadas del sistema educativo.xviii
La pandemia de COVID-19
El brote de COVID-19 amplificó los retos socio-económicos y educativos en todo el territorio colombiano, dejando a muchos estudiantes en riesgo de retirarse de sus estudios por completo y entrar en el mercado laboral.xix En un artículo para el New York Times, Gloria Vásquez explica que graduarse, en Colombia, es un gran logro, ya que en el pasado la mayoría de colombianos no tienen las mismas oportunidades para educarse. Así, explica, “la violencia y el crimen son tan comunes aquí como el carro de helados que recorre la manzana cada tarde”, y muchos padres han trabajado en el pasado como recicladores, recorriendo las calles en busca de cualquier objeto de valor para intentar venderlo.xx La pandemia exacerbó los miedos ya existentes de que muchos menores abandonaran sus estudios, especialmente porque el 50% de los hogares colombianos no pueden pagar una conexión a internet, y los menores no cuentan con los medios digitales para seguir sus clases o completar sus tareas, ni mucho menos mantenerse en contacto con los maestros cuando cerraron las escuelas. Esto se tradujo en una carga adicional para padres muchas veces sin educación que debían asegurar la formación de sus hijos.xxi
Debido a las repercusiones económicas de la pandemia, se estima que 100.000 menores desertaron la escuela en 2020.xxii En entrevista para Peoples Dispatch, un maestro popular de secundaria, Harold García, explicaba que en las ciudades los colegios privados estaban mejor equipados para enfrentar el brote de la enfermedad y duplicaron el trabajo de los maestros que se apuraron a completar el currículo a la vez que aprendían cómo utilizar e incorporar métodos digitales de enseñanza.xxiii Además, García expresó su descontento con la administración del presidente Duque Márquez durante la pandemia, quien desvió recursos públicos que se necesitaban en educación hacia seguridad nacional y para asistir a los bancos.xxiv Los 1,5 millones de indígenas que viven en Colombia, por otra parte, acapararon la atención durante este tiempo. El grupo indígena más numeroso, el pueblo Wayúu, que habita predominantemente en la región de La Guajira, se vio gravemente afectado por el cierre del sector turístico, ya que el 90% de ellos trabajaba informalmente en él, y sólo el 10% tenía acceso suficiente a Internet para trabajar o aprender a distancia.xxv Las iniciativas de la Fundación El Origen aumentaron el acceso de los niños indígenas a la educación virtual en términos de lengua, mediante el uso de aplicaciones, y dotando a 260 niños wayuu de tabletas, que a la vez apoyan los pasos para ampliar la lengua de enseñanza a las 64 lenguas que se hablan fuera del español oficial y ayudan a los pueblos indígenas a romper el ciclo de la pobreza.xxvi
Por último, la COVID-19 puso a los niños en un riesgo significativo de ser reclutados por los grupos guerrilleros restantes como niños soldados, haciendo retroceder los esfuerzos logrados a través del plan nacional 2019 y el Caso No. 7 de la Jurisdicción Especial para la Paz, que tiene como objetivo prevenir el reclutamiento y la violencia sexual contra los niños. Así mismo, se reconoce el trabajo positivo que realizan las organizaciones de la sociedad civil como las Misiones Salesianas y Missioni Don Bosco Onlus para garantizar el acceso a la educación.xxvii Es una estrategia conocida de estos grupos dirigirse a niños que viven en regiones rurales y proceden de un entorno socioeconómico pobre, por lo que son más fáciles de coaccionar debido a su falta de acceso a la educación y a la formación profesional, pero a menudo se convierten en escudos humanos, porteadores, espías, niñas novias, esclavas sexuales o se utilizan para actividades laborales en el actual conflicto civil con el gobierno colombiano.xxviii Para hacer frente a este problema persistente, el Proyecto Borgen ha hecho recientemente un llamamiento al gobierno colombiano para que aplique políticas y medidas más estrictas que desincentiven el reclutamiento, así como para que se exija a la comunidad internacional que adopte planes de ayuda exterior más sustanciales que apunten más hacia un progreso holístico y colectivo.xxix
***
El sistema educativo colombiano ha dado pasos positivos que han dado grandes resultados en el acceso a la educación. Aún así, destaca la calidad asequible y valiosa en los resultados que la educación debe preparar a los estudiantes para alcanzar niveles superiores de educación o entrar en el mercado laboral. A nivel mundial, la educación es un activo importante que demuestra que los beneficios superan los costes de inyectar tiempo y financiación para impulsar el acceso, la calidad, los resultados y el valor que cada niño recibe a través de su educación, sirviendo como momentos cruciales que definen su futuro y el de sus países. De esta manera, Colombia no sólo atendería la otra mitad del Objetivo 4 de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible en materia de calidad, sino que reforzaría sus avances para reducir la pobreza, establecer mecanismos duraderos de resolución pacífica y justa, dinamizar el crecimiento económico, alcanzar niveles más robustos de salud y bienestar, y cerrar las brechas de desigualdad que aún persisten.
iOrganization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2016) ‘Education in Colombia: Highlights’, pp. 2-3; see also Trines, S. (2020) ‘Education in Colombia’. World Education News + Reviews. Available online from: https://wenr.wes.org/2020/06/education-in-colombia-2/ [Accessed on 27/03/2022[.
iv ‘Education in Colombia: Highlights’, pp. 4, 6 & 10.
v ‘Girls’ Education in Colombia Continues to on the Path of Progress’.
vi Moutter, C. (2017) ‘Colombia’s Education System’. Children Beyond Our Borders. Available online from: http://www.chbob.org/blog/colombias-education-system [Accessed on 27/03/2022]; see also ‘Education in Colombia’; see also Education in Colombia: Highlights’, pp. 6-7, 8 & 10.
xix ‘Education in Colombia’; see also Turkewitz, J. (2021) ‘1+1 = 4? Latin American Confronts a Pandemic Education Crisis’. The New York Times. Available online from: https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/26/world/americas/latin-america-pandemic-education.html [Accessed 28/03/2022]; see also ‘In Colombia, the Pandemic is Widening Inequality in Access to Education’.
xx 1+1 = 4? Latin American Confronts a Pandemic Education Crisis’.
xxiIbid.; see also ‘In Colombia, the Pandemic is Widening Inequality in Access to Education’.
The Netherlands has major challenges in the housing market, mainly because of scarcity. Finding affordable and decent accommodation can be a struggle, especially when not native to the language or common from a different country. International students are particularly vulnerable because of the discrimination and exploitation they face in the current housing market.
The Problem:
The main issue is the severe shortage of suitable housing options, especially for (international) students. Exploitation and deception are commonly faced when international students try to find a suitable housing situation.
Various sources explain why internationals are more vulnerable than Dutch students:
Lack of awareness and cultural differences:
International students often struggle to navigate the local student culture, making it harder for them to recognize warning signs and easier to become victims of exploitation.
Language barriers:
Constantly speaking English at home is often the reason why Dutch students are less likely to select international housemates, contributing to social clustering.
Preference for familiarity:
Dutch students may prioritize living with friends from high school or their student association, making them less likely to welcome new international students.
Shorter stay duration:
International students typically stay for shorter periods. Landlords (and housemates) might prefer tenants with longer commitments.
Practical considerations:
Landlords and housemates may exclude international students from their selection process to manage overwhelming responses to housing advertisements.
Unveiling Scammer Tactics:
Scammers take advantage of the housing crisis, employing various (although often similar) tactics to deceive potential renters:
Urgent payment requests:
Scammers pressure individuals to pay immediately by claiming that delaying payment could result in losing the opportunity.
False identification:
To appear trustworthy they often offer false identification, and scammers use stolen or forged identity documents.
Posing as current tenants:
Pretending to be current occupants, scammers assure prospective tenants of the landlord’s reliability, enhancing their credibility.
Emotional manipulation:
Making up sympathetic stories, scammers exploit emotions to facilitate deception.
Flexibility with preferences:
Scammers are often very flexible and easily adapt to tenants’ preferences (regarding lease start dates or furnishing options) to gain trust.
Advance payment requests without viewing:
Scammers demand upfront payments before viewing the property and often request the money to be transferred to foreign accounts or through specific payment links.
Awareness of these tactics empowers renters to take precautionary measures against scams and safeguard themselves effectively.
Annotated bibliography:
Everyone in the housing market may be affected by enormous scarcity, but international students are even more vulnerable due to increased desperation in their housing search.
Language barrier: Dutch students may struggle with the idea of constantly speaking English at home. After a long day of studying or working, they want to relax, which can be made difficult by the need to communicate in another language.
Cultural differences: It is suggested that international students may not be familiar with the local student culture, such as attending housing interviews and joining student associations. This can lead to a sense of alienation between international and Dutch students.
Preference for acquaintances: Dutch students sometimes prefer to live with friends from high school, making them less inclined to welcome new people, such as international students.
Short stays: International students often stay for a shorter period, which some houses prefer to avoid. Landlords often prefer housemates who will stay for a longer period.
Practical considerations
Due to the large number of responses to advertisements for available rooms, landlords may choose to exclude international students to limit the selection and keep the process manageable.
Unfamiliarity and prejudice
Dutch students may have a distorted view of international students and may not be aware of the challenges they face in finding housing. Prejudices may exist that hinder the acceptance of international students.
The main idea of the article is that international students in the Netherlands often face abuse by landlords and difficulties in finding affordable and decent housing. This is supported by reports to the National Student Union (LSVb) and the Amsterdam Student Union ASVA, which point to discrimination, fraud, and neglect of housing. The shortage of student housing is emphasized, especially in Amsterdam, and calls are made for targeted government investments to address this problem.
The main idea of the article is that students in the Netherlands, especially international students, are particularly vulnerable to fraud due to severe housing shortages. Due to the scarcity of student housing and the increase in the number of students, they easily fall victim to scammers who place fake advertisements for housing. These scammers use various tactics to pressure students and gain their trust, such as providing false identification and telling sad stories. Despite efforts by administrators of Facebook groups and warning groups on the platform, fraud remains a major problem.
International students are victims of abuse and fraud due to the severe shortage of student housing. Many international students search for a room from abroad, so they may not always have the opportunity to physically view the room and struggle to find reliable landlords. Landlords take advantage of the vulnerable position of international students by refusing repairs, asking for excessively high rent, and threatening eviction. International students often have no alternative and must accept poor conditions or risk becoming homeless. Targeted investments in student housing are needed to address the shortage of rooms, but there is still a lack of real action from the national government.
The municipality of Nijmegen collaborates with Radboud University and HAN University of Applied Sciences to address housing discrimination against international students. At Vizier, people can report discrimination and receive advice on how to deal with it. Vizier provides support in finding a solution, helps with complaints, and can assist with filing a report with the police if necessary. By reporting discrimination, you not only help yourself but also contribute to making the problem visible to the authorities so that targeted action can be taken. Examples of housing discrimination include charging higher rent, deposit, or mediation fees to international students because of their nationality, which is against the law.
According to experts, these are tactics that scammers often use:
Scammers put pressure on people. They say: if you wait to pay, then the room will be taken by someone else, so pay quickly.
They often offer to provide identification, making it seem reliable. But they use (hacked) identity cards of others for this purpose.
They often initially pose as the current resident, who then emphasizes that the landlord is really trustworthy.
They say they are abroad, so you cannot view the property. And often accompany this with a sad story, such as their wife being treated there for illness or helping at the border with Ukraine.
The scammers are usually very accommodating to your wishes. Later or earlier in the property? No problem. Preferably unfurnished? That’s also possible.
They ask (in most cases) if the money can be transferred before the property can be viewed. The money must be sent to a foreign account or via a specific payment link.
Every student counts! In 2011, this slogan was the starting shot of the Caribbean and European Netherlands’ combined efforts to achieve educational equity and raise the quality of education on the islands of Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba. Although quality and equity increased, the Caribbean Netherlands still dealt with significant educational challenges in 2023. This article will explore three main challenges: the care for students with special needs, multilingualism, and the effects of poverty.
This article analyses these three challenges to understand the accessibility and quality of education in the Caribbean Netherlands. But first, we need to go into the governance structure of the islands and their relationship with the European Netherlands to fully understand the barriers to tackling the challenges and efforts to address them. Also, the policy programs addressing education and the Education Agendas will be given special attention to show continuing good practices and to explain the context in which the current challenges continue.
Context-Specific Efforts to Overcome Education Inequity
In 1948, Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba became a part of the Dutch Antilles, a separate country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. This changed in 2010: the islands became public bodies under the European Netherlands. Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba are now local governments. An executive council, an island council, and the Dutch national government govern each island. Since this change, the islands have been referred to as the Caribbean Netherlands or the BES-islands.[i]
The Dutch Ministry for Education, Culture and Science is responsible for education. The schools on the islands are part of the Dutch education system and are monitored by the Netherlands’ Inspectorate of Education.[ii] The Dutch Ministry of Education, island councils and other stakeholders cooperated over the past twelve years to develop three policy programs, the Education Agendas.
The Education Agendas address educational equity between the two parts of the Netherlands. The idea is that it should not matter whether a child grows up in the European Netherlands or the Caribbean Netherlands; educational opportunities should be the same.[iii] The agendas address the specific context of the islands, as there are apparent differences from the European Netherlands in terms of culture, history, identity, language, scale, and organization.[iv]
The first two agendas address all three islands within one agenda. During the draft of the first Education Agenda (2011-2016), the level of education of many schools on the BES islands did not fulfil European nor Caribbean Dutch standards.[v] By 2016, most schools reached basic quality standards. However, particular areas still required improvement, again addressed in the second Agenda (2017-2020). [vi] The evaluation of this Agenda in 2020 shows that the main challenges are care for students with special needs and multilingualism.[vii]
While the third Education Agenda has not yet been published, it shall address these challenges.[viii] Furthermore, this agenda will address the challenges on each island separately, showing us a further commitment to context-specific policymaking, which hopefully improves the effectiveness of the third Education Agenda.
Educational Challenge I: Care for Students with Special Needs
The first challenge to discuss is the care for students with special needs. The right to education for children with special needs is a human right. It is taken up in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. While the last Convention was ratified by the European Netherlands, it does not apply to the Caribbean Netherlands.
A statement by the Expertise Centre Education Care Saba in 2021 summarizes the importance of care for these students: “Students have the right to feel included in a safe and reliable environment with a structured pedagogical climate that is tolerant and encouraging for the development of all”.[ix] Now, children with special needs still face situations in which education is not tailored to them, meaning they do not profit from education as their peers or eventually drop out. Some children do not have access to education at all. Children with a higher need for care face difficulties.[x]
An example of inadequate care is the case of the ten-year-old Arianny on Bonaire. In 2022, the non-speaking girl was in the news as she could not attend education on Bonaire. Arianny had no access. Members of the Dutch parliament asked the then minister of Education, Dennis Wiersma, questions about her situation and the general situation on Bonaire. The minister reacted that all children should have access to education and are required to attend school, despite specific situations. The situation of Arianny and the research in other reports show us that is not yet the reality.[xi]
Why do these problems continue even after the two Education Agendas?
Student care on the BES islands is not comparable to care in the European Netherlands. While both experience similar problems, the expert centre on Saba notes that the main difference derives from scale and school culture, for example, the lack of awareness about the differing needs of students. This also applies to the other islands: children with special needs continue to follow the same program as their peers even though they need additional care. Moreover, there are relatively more students with special needs in Saba than in the European Netherlands. Possible explanations are a lack of education planning, differentiation in the classroom and special education needs teachers.[xii] Also, non-school-related causes affect children’s learning capabilities, such as poverty and domestic violence.[xiii]
This continuing lack of care for students with special needs thus asks for extra efforts. Renewed attention to this problem and policies need to tackle the problem, ensuring (continuance of) access to education for children like Arianny. Individual needs must be considered to optimize the learning experience of already vulnerable students.
Educational Challenge II: Multilingualism
Because of the different languages being spoken on each island, the language of education has been a thorny issue. Encountered challenges have been linguistic imperialism, learning challenges, and difficulty accessing tertiary education in Dutch.
On Bonaire, most inhabitants speak Papiamento as their mother tongue. On Saba and St. Eustasius, a local variety of Caribbean English has the upper hand. Despite this, Dutch was the only officially recognized language until the beginning of the century thus, education was in Dutch.[xiv]Nowadays, Papiamento and English can both be used in education. This represents the reality of the islands and a respect for local languages, making it a laudable development and a move away from linguistic imperialism.
However, it also causes new educational challenges, especially for learning results and further education. On Saba and St. Eustatius, the instruction language is English. Dutch is being taught as a foreign language.[xv] St. Eustatius switched to English as an instruction language in secondary education in 2014. Dutch proved to negatively affect learning outcomes and attitudes towards the Dutch language.[xvi] Saba has used English as the instruction language for a more extended period. However, only teaching Dutch as a foreign language hinders access to tertiary education. A low proficiency in Dutch means that students from these islands cannot access (all) tertiary education institutions in the European Netherlands.[xvii] This is especially problematic because the Caribbean Netherlands does not have any universities or universities of applied sciences, meaning inhabitants must move to pursue tertiary education.[xviii]
On Bonaire, education starts in Papiamento – the native language of most students – for the first two years of primary school. After these years, the instruction language became Dutch. This causes risks, as the case of St. Eustatius before 2014 showed. Furthermore, it can hinder learning outcomes as children might struggle with Dutch.[xix]
Therefore, multilingualism leads to specific challenges for students regarding access to further education and learning outcomes. It has been difficult to find a balance between Dutch, Papiamento, and Caribbean English that will tackle these challenges. A comprehensive language policy should be developed per island, where native languages and Dutch get a well-balanced place within the education system.
Educational Challenge III: Poverty
This third educational challenge goes beyond the education agendas as it intertwines with the overall situation on the BES islands: life on the islands has become increasingly expensive, and salaries and government support are insufficient to afford this.
This is why children on the BES islands noted poverty as one of the biggest challenges in their lives in 2021. And high poverty levels have continued since then: 11,000 people live below the poverty line in 2023. This is an extremely high number, considering that the islands’ total population is 30,000.[xx] In comparison to the European Netherlands: 800,000 live in poverty on a population of almost 18 million.[xxi]
What do such numbers mean for Caribbean students?
The rapport between the Dutch Ombudsman and the Children’s Ombudsman gives us the distressing example of Shanice, an 11-year-old Bonairean girl. Her mother is a single caretaker, working multiple jobs to stay afloat. She is more often at work than at home. Shanice cares for her younger brothers and sisters, looks after the groceries, and wash dishes instead of having the opportunity to focus on her studies. She goes to school: she likes it there. However, she often feels stressed because of her many responsibilities. Then, she cannot focus or learn. At the same time, Shanice pressures herself to learn: she wants to have a different life than her mom.[xxii]
This example shows how poverty gives children many responsibilities and negatively affects their learning. This example does not comprise all adverse effects. When not having enough money, healthy food is not always a priority, just like schoolbooks or having a good place to study. Extra school costs might not be paid. Parents and kids both experience high-stress levels, which might cause parents to be (emotionally) unavailable and children to have problems focusing. All negatively affect the school outcomes of children.[xxiii]
To tackle this problem of poverty and its effects, there should be governmental support to lift children and their parents from poverty. However, government policies are one of the causes of poverty: the model of living costs for the BES island presents living costs as lower than they are. Policies are developed based on this model. Moreover, this is a recurring argument for not higher social welfare: ensuring social welfare will demotivate people, and they will not work anymore.[xxiv] Hence, policies have contributed to the problem of poverty.
In addition, inhabitants of the BES islands do not always have access to the same resources European Dutch individuals have. These resources are, however, of great importance: European Dutch depend on them, but Caribbean Dutch cannot even access them.[xxv] This is possible because of the special status of the islands. The UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination noted in 2021 that such differences between the European Netherlands and Caribbean Netherlands are deplorable, that discrimination should be fought, and that equality should be pursued.
The Dutch government has been taking steps. A law ensuring the equal treatment of all citizens in the Netherlands will come into effect for the Caribbean Netherlands.[xxvi] The exact date is, however, unclear. Furthermore, the model of living costs will be adjusted in July 2024. From that date onwards, inhabitants of the Caribbean Netherlands will be able to breach the gap between social security and living costs that exists now. In addition, the Dutch government does undertake other efforts to address poverty, but the Netherlands Institute for Human Rights judges them to be insufficient. [xxvii]
The Dutch government seems to increasingly take responsibility for the high poverty levels in the Caribbean Netherlands. A necessary development: despite statements such as ‘Every student counts!’, the Dutch government has discriminated against Caribbean Dutch citizens. The unfavourable treatment they experience puts them behind their fellow citizens in Europe.
Education quality has increased significantly on the Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba islands. Great efforts have been made to tailor policies to the local contexts of the islands, which is essential for education equity between the European and Caribbean Netherlands. This is praiseworthy and will hopefully continue with the third Education Agenda.
However, great educational challenges persist on the islands. Benefits from and access to education are under pressure. While multilingualism affects all students, poverty and the lack of special care affect some students disproportionately. Furthermore, the problem of poverty and lack of special care show clear signs of discrimination, which should be condemned and stopped. The case of the islands of Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba thus indicates the need for policies tackling discrimination and a comprehensive plan to improve education further.
[iv] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijsagenda voor Caribisch Nederland: samen werken aan kwaliteit. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. 1. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/binaries/rijksdienstcn-nederlands/documenten/brochures/onderwijs-cultuur/onderwijsagendas/eerste-onderwijsagenda-caribisch-nederland/index/Eerste_Onderwijsagenda_NL.pdf
[v] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijsagenda voor Caribisch Nederland: samen werken aan kwaliteit. 1.
[vi] Inspectie van het Onderwijs. (2017). De Ontwikkeling van het Onderwijs in Caribisch Nederland 2014-2016. Onderwijsinspectie. 39-41. https://www.onderwijsinspectie.nl/documenten/rapporten/2017/03/21/rapport-onderwijsontwikkelingen-caribisch-nederland-20142016
[vii] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 20. https://www.eerstekamer.nl/overig/20210708/evaluatie_tweede_onderwijsagenda/document3/f=/vlkch545eltd_opgemaakt.
[viii] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 22.
[ix]. Langerak, Lisa. (2021). Inclusive Special Education on Saba. Expertise Center Education Care. 2. https://www.learningsaba.com/2021_Care_Coordinator/210614%20Project%20plan%20Inclusive%20Special%20Education%20Saba.pdf
[x] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 20.
[xxii] Kinderombudsman, and Nationale Ombudsman. (2023). Caribische kinderen van de rekening. Kinderombudsman. 4. https://www.nationaleombudsman.nl/publicaties/rapporten/2022058#:~:text=Dit%20rapport%20beschrijft%20de%20knelpunten,zelf%20als%20voor%20hun%20kinderen.
[xxiii] Nederlands Jeugdinstituut. (N.d). De invloed van armoede op schoolprestaties. Nederlands Jeugdinstituut. https://www.nji.nl/armoede/invloed-op-schoolprestaties
[xxvi] Netherlands Institute for Human Rights. (2023). Caribisch Nederland krijgt wetgeving gelijke behandeling. College voor de Rechten van de Mens. https://www.mensenrechten.nl/actueel/nieuws/2023/01/25/caribisch-nederland-krijgt-wetgeving-gelijke-behandeling#:~:text=Iedereen%20die%20zich%20in%20Nederland,2010%20bijzondere%20gemeentes%20van%20Nederland
In Albania, access to education remains unequal due to a complex interplay of social and economic factors. Despite strides since the end of communist rule, disparities persist, leaving many marginalized. Socioeconomic status, geography, ethnicity, and gender intersect to create barriers to quality education. Economic disparities hinder low-income families from affording schooling costs, while rural areas face resource and infrastructure challenges. Minority groups, like the Roma and Balkan Egyptians, encounter discrimination, and traditional gender roles limit girls’ access to education in some regions. Albania’s political nature, marked by historical transitions and ongoing reforms, also influences its education system. The country’s path from communist isolation to a multi-party democracy has seen improvements, but political instability and corruption have at times disrupted the educational progress.
Despite primary education boasting a commendable enrolment rate of 97% and a completion rate of 107%, it doesn’t signify an absence of challenges in education accessibility. These figures underscore Albanian society’s prioritization of schooling and the significance placed on education. However, upon examining secondary education, the enrolment rate plummets to 75%, a figure significantly lower than regional averages and falling below standards set by the The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU).
Economic disparities play a significant role in worsening unequal access to education in Albania. Studies indicate that nearly 60% of the population resides in rural areas, where economic challenges are pronounced and many struggle to meet their basic needs.1 Consequently, children in these communities face unwarranted disadvantages in accessing education. The issue unfolds along two primary tracks: first, the financial constraints that hinder families from affording school-related expenses such as tuition fees, textbooks, and transportation. Despite education being free in Albania, many families still encounter financial challenges. Second, the lack of infrastructural investments in rural areas further compounds the problem, making it even more difficult for children to access educational opportunities. This dual challenge underscores the urgent need for targeted interventions aimed at alleviating economic barriers and improving infrastructure in rural communities to ensure equitable access to education for all children in Albania.
There is a glaring absence of state aid for families facing financial difficulties in Albania. This lack of support is further exacerbated by inadequate infrastructure and the scarcity of schools, which intensifies the challenges faced by students. In many cases, children must undertake arduous journeys of 2-5 kilometres daily to reach school, particularly in remote areas where schools are often located in neighbouring villages. These journeys pose significant risks, especially during harsh winter conditions, when extreme weather and hazardous terrain, including river crossings and forest paths, increase the danger for young students. Furthermore, children are frequently placed in the same classroom regardless of their varying ages or disparities in knowledge levels. This occurs due to insufficient student numbers to form individual classes, resulting in a compromised quality of education.
Social disparities significantly contribute to the widening of the inequality gap in Albania. While the ethnic makeup of the Albanian population comprises mainly Albanians (98.1%) and other minorities such as Greeks (0.9%) and various recognized groups including Vlach, Roma, Macedonians, Montenegrins, and Egyptians (1%), the latter face distinct challenges in accessing education despite constitutional recognition of their rights.2 Among these minorities, Roma and Egyptians are particularly marginalized, facing discrimination that permeates their educational opportunities. Economic factors exacerbate this disparity, with studies revealing that 64% of their income is allocated to basic necessities like food.3 Living in impoverished conditions, often sustained by collecting and selling recyclable materials, these minorities struggle to afford schooling for their children. Consequently, many children are not enrolled in school, as they are expected to contribute to their families’ income by assisting in street activities, further perpetuating the cycle of poverty and educational exclusion.
The language barrier presents another significant hurdle contributing to educational disparities in Albania. While the official language is Albanian, and the country legally acknowledges and accepts the language and culture of the Roma community, educational instruction is exclusively provided in Albanian. This linguistic limitation widens the gap, particularly for Roma children who encounter difficulties learning in a language different from their own. As a result, their academic performance often suffers. Despite this challenge, the state has yet to implement any programs or initiatives aimed at facilitating the education of these students and bridging the gap caused by language differences.
Another issue promoting social disparities in education is the requirement for children to be registered at schools within the neighbourhood or zone where they reside. This policy poses significant challenges, particularly in densely populated urban areas like the capital city, Tirana. In Tirana, certain neighbourhoods consist primarily of social housing, trapping children from less privileged families in a cycle of disadvantage. The correlation between poverty, neighbourhood residency, and educational quality creates a self-perpetuating loop where children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds are confined to areas with limited resources and subsequently receive lower-quality education. This systemic barrier further causes social inequalities, hindering the prospects for upward mobility and perpetuating cycles of poverty in Albania’s urban centres.
Gender inequality represents another significant factor contributing to disparities in education. While studies and data indicate minimal discrepancies between boys’ and girls’ access to education at lower levels, a substantial gender gap emerged in higher education enrolment rates since 2009. Recent statistics reveal a stark contrast, with male enrolment in higher education standing at 43%, while female enrolment lags far behind at only 18%, marking a 25% disparity between genders.4 This gap can be attributed to entrenched traditional norms in Albanian culture, which is predominantly patriarchal. Although young girls are often encouraged to complete secondary education, societal expectations dictate that their educational pursuits cease thereafter, prioritizing marriage and family formation. Consequently, many women are hindered from reaching their full potential due to these societal constraints, perpetuating the cycle of gender inequality in Albanian society.
Albania faces the challenge of meeting Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) targets in education, with particular emphasis on improving specific areas. One major area requiring attention is increasing the percentage of young people achieving minimum proficiency in reading after lower secondary education. This involves enhancing reading programs, teacher training, and access to quality reading materials. Additionally, improving the completion rate in primary education is essential, focusing on reducing dropout rates and providing support to students at risk of discontinuing their education. Moreover, increasing participation rates in organized learning activities, such as extracurricular programs and vocational training, is crucial for fostering holistic development. Lastly, efforts to enhance proficiency in mathematics after the end of lower secondary education are needed, including curriculum improvements, teacher training, and educational resources. By addressing these specific challenges, Albania can make significant progress towards meeting its education-related SDG targets and ensuring a more inclusive and quality education system.
In conclusion, Albania faces a complex web of challenges that contribute to inequalities in education access. Addressing these issues demands comprehensive strategies to dismantle structural barriers, challenge societal norms, and prioritize equitable education access for all. Additionally, investing in teacher training and curriculum development is essential for enhancing the quality of education and ensuring that all Albanian students have the opportunity to reach their full potential. By implementing inclusive policies, investing in infrastructure, and promoting cultural change, Albania can progress towards providing quality education to every child, regardless of background. Only through concerted efforts can Albania foster a more equitable and prosperous future for all its citizens.
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