The Inequalities of Quality of Education in South African Schools

Written by Daniel Tsang

The Inequalities of Quality of Education in South African Schools

The South African education system is frequently discussed alongside education inequalities. While the country possesses a world-class private and semi-private sector that produces high-achieving graduates, the vast majority of the population relies on a public system that sometimes struggles to provide. And although the national government often celebrates high graduation rates at the end of high school, these statistics frequently mask a deeper crisis in the quality of education provided to the average learner. The significance of this issue lies in its direct impact on the lives of millions of young South Africans; it restricts a student’s ability to learn, grow, and pursue their desired future. This article examines the core quality issues within primary and secondary education, and by investigating these challenges, the article seeks to explain how these systemic failures in the classroom directly hinder student development.

The most significant quality hurdle in South African education occurs during the earliest years of schooling, known as the Foundation Phase (Grades R to 3). This period is intended to equip children with the basic literacy and numeracy skills required for all future learning. However, current data suggests a “generational catastrophe” in primary education. Approximately 81 per cent of Grade 4 learners in South Africa cannot “read for meaning” in any language (World Bank 2025, 36). This means that while many children can converse with others, they do not understand the information or the narrative of words being presented to them.

For the student, this literacy gap is not just a temporary delay; it is a permanent academic setback. When a child cannot read to learn by the age of ten, every subsequent subject, from history to science, becomes significantly more difficult to master as age increases. Because the curriculum shifts in Grade 4 from teaching reading to using reading as a tool for knowledge, students who have not mastered comprehension are left behind. Research indicates that students of schools that did not enrol in an additional early grade reading programme struggle to meet basic literacy benchmarks in English, compared to their counterparts (Long and Bowles 2024, 5). While the study has also demonstrated to some extent that a lack of funding is not the primary reason for this discrepancy, in many rural classrooms the quality of learning is indeed compromised by a lack of age-appropriate books, forcing teachers to rely on less efficient methods of teaching.

The quality of a student’s education is absolutely tied to the physical environment in which they are expected to learn. It is profoundly difficult for a learner to tackle complex mathematical or scientific concepts when their school lacks basic infrastructure. Reports have consistently highlighted the “infrastructure gap” in South African schools, particularly in rural provinces such as the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. National data reveals that over 22 per cent of pre-primary, primary, and secondary schools did not have toilets that met minimum standards, 10 per cent of schools did not have clean water, and 9 per cent of schools did not have access to adequate electricity (World Bank 2025, 32). Despite the Department of Basic Education introducing tighter regulations in 2024 to address these issues, many learners continue to attend schools that are physically unsuited for a modern education.

The highly stratified South African schooling system, governed by a socio-economic ranking framework known as the “Quintile” system, does not make it easy to fund these “unsuited” schools. Under this model, schools are categorised from Quintile 1 (the poorest 20 per cent) to Quintile 5 (the wealthiest 20 per cent). This ranking dictates the level of state funding a school receives. Schools in Quintiles 1 to 3 are designated as “no-fee” institutions, meaning they rely entirely on government subsidies. Conversely, schools in Quintiles 4 and 5 receive less state funding but are legally permitted to charge tuition fees (Dyk and White 2019, S1).

This system, while intended to be pro-poor, has institutionalised a divide that punishes the student for their family’s economic status. Wealthy Quintile 5 schools leverage private fees to hire extra teachers and maintain smaller class sizes, ensuring that students receive much more individual attention (Dyk and White 2019, S2–S7). In contrast, students in “no-fee” schools often find themselves in overcrowded classrooms where a single teacher may be responsible for many more learners. Additionally, a student in a private or Quintile 5 school may have access to a personal tablet and high-speed internet, digitalised and much more accessible learning materials, but a student in a rural “no-fee” school may rarely interact with a computer or tablet during their entire schooling journey.

The experience of a student in South Africa is further defined by an intense academic routine and several significant constraints. An interview with a student enrolled in the private sector reveals that students are typically required to take 15 different subjects, covering everything from multiple languages and sciences to arts and business-related subjects (Student 2026). A typical school day begins at 07:30 a.m., with as many as eight classes a day, each lasting near or above 45 minutes (Student 2026). The teaching style is largely traditional and lecture-based, where the teacher delivers information and students are expected to learn it to pass national assessments coming later during their schooling years.

For students in urban centres like Johannesburg, life is further complicated by safety concerns. High crime rates in the city mean that students cannot walk home or socialise freely on the streets (Student 2026). Consequently, student life is usually confined within the school perimeter. Socialisation often occurs during school breaks, related events, or through sports and extracurricular activities like field hockey, rugby, and drama (Student 2026). Despite its diversity, this creates an environment where the school becomes the centre of a student’s social life as well. And while this provides safety, it also increases the pressure to perform, blurring the lines between the student’s demanding study expectations and personal life. Later during a student’s schooling, during Grades 11 and 12, the focus shifts towards the National Senior Certificate (NSC) and the National Benchmark Tests (NBTs), which determine university entrances (Student 2026). For many students, this results in an intense lack of “work-life balance,” as they are constantly pushed to achieve the high marks required to advance their education.

The quality of education in South African schools remains a complex challenge defined by historical socio-economic challenges and modern structural failures. While the country has expanded access to schooling, the standard of that education is often insufficient to fulfil its large population. To improve the quality of learning, the education system must understand the importance of quality of instruction in the early grades. Ensuring foundational literacy, closing the divide of academic quality between the quintiles, and fixing school infrastructure are essential steps toward a more equitable system. Only by addressing these core quality issues can South Africa ensure that a student’s future is determined by their potential, rather than the socio-economic status of the school they attended.

Endnotes

World Bank. South Africa Economic Update, Edition 15: Learning – Overdue Reforms and Emerging Priorities in Basic Education. 36, Washington, DC: World Bank Group, 2025.
Long, Kathleen and Bowles, Thomas. No-fee school consistently outperforms Progress in International Reading and Literacy benchmarks: Presenting early grade reading data from a case in Makhanda, Eastern Cape. 5, Johannesburg: South African Journal of Childhood Education, 2024.
World Bank. South Africa Economic Update, Edition 15: Learning – Overdue Reforms and Emerging Priorities in Basic Education. 32, Washington, DC: World Bank Group, 2025.
Dyk, H. and White, C. J. Theory and Practice of the Quintile Ranking of Schools in South Africa: A Financial Management Perspective. S1, Pretoria: South African Journal of Education, 2019.
Dyk, H. and White, C. J. Theory and Practice of the Quintile Ranking of Schools in South Africa: A Financial Management Perspective. S2–S7, Pretoria: South African Journal of Education, 2019.
Student. Interview Regarding Student Life and Education Quality in South Africa.: Broken Chalk, 2026.
Student. Interview Regarding Student Life and Education Quality in South Africa.: Broken Chalk, 2026.
Student. Interview Regarding Student Life and Education Quality in South Africa.: Broken Chalk, 2026.
Student. Interview Regarding Student Life and Education Quality in South Africa.: Broken Chalk, 2026.
Student. Interview Regarding Student Life and Education Quality in South Africa.: Broken Chalk, 2026.

References

Dyk, H., and C. J. White. 2019. “Theory and Practice of the Quintile Ranking of Schools in South Africa: A Financial Management Perspective.” South African Journal of Education 39 (S1): S1–S9. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v39ns1a1820.

Long, K. A., & Bowles, T. N. (2024). “No-fee school consistently outperforms Progress in International Reading and Literacy benchmarks: Presenting early grade reading data from a case in Makhanda, Eastern Cape.” South African Journal of Childhood Education, 14(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajce.v14i1.1376

World Bank. (2025). South Africa Economic Update, Edition 15: Learning – Overdue Reforms and Emerging Priorities in Basic Education. World Bank Group. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstreams/3a8db70e-afeb-4831-87a0-589ff5011a4c/download

The Paradox of Choice: Free School Systems and Educational Segregation in Sweden.

Author: Connor J. Urquhart

“Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world”

(Mandela 2003).¹

The sentiments provided by Nelson Mandela, highlight the transformative role education can play in society. Across the world, education is widely viewed as a key tool for promoting equal opportunities, social mobility, and integration (Mandahu 2025, 21).² Yet despite significant global progress in expanding access to schooling, achieving genuine equality within education systems remains a challenge. Even within some of the most well-resourced societies, disparities in educational opportunity persist. In a high-income country like Sweden, a society often recognised for its strong welfare state and its commitment to social equality, challenges persist within educational equality. In the early 1990s, Sweden introduced a major educational reform known as the ‘free school’ or friskola system, allowing parents to choose between municipal schools and public funded independent schools aiming to improve educational quality through competition (Alexiadou and Lundahl 2016, 66).³ While the reform was intended to increase efficiency and opportunity within the education system it has also sparked debate about its broader implications or “unintended consequences” as one mother and educator in Sweden articulated (Interview with author, Broken Chalk 2026).

Among the most significant concerns is the argument that increased school choice may contribute to segregation between schools and unequal educational opportunities for students from different socioeconomic and immigrant backgrounds (University of Gothenburg 2026).⁴ To better understand these concerns, this article examines how Sweden’s free school system influences student’s educational experiences. It will explore the intended outcomes of school choice as well as the system’s potential impact on educational equality, academic outcomes, and overall access to these opportunities to different groups of students.

The Intention Behind Free School Systems:

Prior to the early 1990s, the Swedish educational system was largely centralized and students would attend their local municipal school. While this model was designed to promote equality and universal access, critics argued that it limited parental choice and reduced incentives for schools to innovate or improve performance (Riksrevisionen 2022).⁵ In 1992, the Swedish government introduced a voucher-based reform that would allow publicly funded independent schools or ‘free schools’ to operate alongside municipal schools. Under this system, funding follows the student, meaning each child is allocated a publicly financed voucher that can be used at either a municipal school or an independent school (Frontier Centre for Public Policy 2005, 2).⁶ The reform aimed to create greater flexibility within the education system while maintaining universal public funding.

Policymakers at the time believed that increased competition between schools would lead to improvements in educational quality (Frontier Centre for Public Policy 2005, 3).⁷ Many described it as a ‘window being opened’ by giving parents greater freedom to choose schools, the reform sought to empower families and encourage schools to respond more directly to students’ needs (Sjöman 2022).⁸ For the most part these reforms have been quite successful, both Sweden’s investment in education and its study outcomes are above the average for The Organisation for Economic Co-Operation (OECD), (European Commission 2025).⁹ Meaning the Swedish government puts sufficient focus on education and that the financial input and educational output align, placing Sweden in the top 10 countries with the highest score in rights to education (Schleicher 2019).⁹

However, as an educator in Sweden explains “Sweden has some very equality-based policies and really aims to create equality, but I don’t think it is an equity that extends to all” (Interview with author, Broken Chalk 2026). An excellent representation that while the system generally creates equal access to education, sometimes it can render certain individuals invisible in the process. A burden mostly felt by students from different socioeconomic and immigrant backgrounds (Hansen, Patsis, and Gustafsson 2025, 15).¹⁰ The next section will demonstrate how a reform intended to create equality and opportunity, especially for those who were previously barred from access, can also have unintended effects of marginalisation.

The Unintended Consequences

(1) Segregation and Educational Inequality

School choice allows families to select schools based on factors such as academic reputation, location, or social environment. However not all families have the same ability to navigate the system (Böhlmark and Lindahl 2015).¹¹ In Sweden, families who are more established in the country with greater financial resources, educational backgrounds, and access to information are often better positioned to choose schools (Hansen, Patsis, and Gustafsson 2025, 3).¹²

This is exemplified in one mother’s experience, where she explains that the system can create fewer opportunities for newly arrived families. As she notes, “it really does create less opportunities for families that have newly arrived and don’t have a corporate backing that helps them get into an international school.” Access can also be limited by the queue-based admission system used by many free schools. According to them, families may have to wait “two or three years” before a place becomes available. For newly arrived families, the barriers can be even greater: “When you newly arrived in Sweden and you haven’t got your personal number yet, you can’t get on the queue system, and you didn’t know that you were supposed to put your child on the queue when they were six months old” (Interview with author, Broken Chalk 2026).

Together, these structural barriers illustrate how navigating school choice may be easier for some families than others, raising concern that the system may unintentionally deepen educational inequality.

(2) Differences in Academic Performance

Segregation between schools can also influence academic performance. Schools with a higher concentration of disadvantaged students often face greater challenges with research frequently showing that they tend to have lower average test scores compared with schools that enroll more advantaged students. For example, only 49% of immigrant students reach proficiency benchmarks in reading, mathematics, and science, compared to 76% of native students (Cerna et al. 2019).¹³ However, these differences are shaped by a range of complex and interconnected factors, including socioeconomic conditions, language barriers, and differences in access to educational resources.

The point is not to suggest that students from disadvantaged backgrounds are less capable of achieving strong academic outcomes. Rather, it highlights how the broader educational environment can influence learning opportunities. At the same time, schools that attract higher-performing or more advantaged students may benefit from stronger academic cultures and higher expectations.

In this way, segregation between schools can contribute to widening achievement gaps, where academic outcomes are shaped not only by individual ability or effort, but also by the learning environments and opportunities available within different schools. As a result, a student’s academic prospects may increasingly depend on the school they attend.

(3) Differences in Educational Opportunities

Limited accessibility to the free school system can also affect the range of educational opportunities available to students. Some schools are better able to attract experienced teachers, offer specialized programs, provide stronger preparation for higher education, and have greater access to educational resources (Hansen, Patsis, and Gustafsson 2025, 16).¹⁴

For some students, attending a well-resourced school may provide clearer pathways toward higher education and broader academic possibilities. For others, opportunities may be more limited due to fewer resources or language barriers. As a result, the structure of the school system itself can influence students’ long-term educational prospects (Cerna et al. 2019 23).¹⁵

This perspective reflects an important reality that while education is broadly available, the quality and range of opportunities within different schools may vary. Understanding how these differences shape students’ experiences is therefore essential when examining the broader impacts of the free school system.

Conclusion

The introduction of the free school system in the early 1990s was intended to strengthen the commitment to educational equality by expanding parental choice and improving educational quality through competition. In many respects, these reforms have contributed to a dynamic education system that performs well internationally and continues to prioritise education. However, as this article has explored, policies designed to expand opportunity can also produce unintended consequences. While the free school system provides families with greater flexibility, it can also contribute to patterns of segregation between schools, differences in academic performance, and unequal access to educational opportunities.

At the same time, the debate surrounding Sweden’s free school system should not be framed as a simple question of whether school choice should exist. As an educator in Sweden, reflects, “there is a question that we should have a choice of schools. Absolutely. And I think that also acts as a checks and balances on the school” (Interview with author, Broken Chalk 2026). Rather, the challenge lies in ensuring that the benefits of choice are accessible to all students, not only to those families best positioned to navigate the system. Addressing these challenges requires policies that strengthen both equity and quality across schools. This includes fostering effective strategies that prioritise: improving instructional quality, promoting inclusive school composition and positive learning environments, and addressing the specific needs of disadvantaged students (Cerna et al. 2019, 17).¹⁶ By focusing on these areas, policymakers can help ensure that educational reforms continue to support both excellence and fairness.

Ultimately, Sweden’s experience illustrates the complexity of balancing choice, competition, and equality within education systems. If education is indeed a ‘powerful weapon’ for social change, then ensuring that all students have meaningful access to high-quality learning environments remains one of the most important challenges for policymakers, educators, and communities alike.

Endnotes

^{Nelson Mandela. “Lighting Your Way to a Better Future: Speech Delivered at the Launch of Mindset Network.” July 16, 2003. http://www.mandela.gov.za/mandela_speeches/2003/030716_mindset.htm}
^{Mandahu, Teresa. Education and Social Mobility in Emerging Economies: A Review of Barriers and Opportunities. International Journal of Social Science and Applied Technology 1, no. 2 (2025): 21-28. doi:10.64391/ijssat.v1i1.003.}
^{Alexiadou, Nafsika, and Lisbeth Lundahl. “Reforming Swedish Education by Introduction of Quasimarkets and Competition.” In New Public Management and the Reform of Education: European Lessons for Policy and Practice, edited by Helen Gunter, Emiliano Grimaldi, David Hall, and Roberto Serpieri, 66–80. London and New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis, 2016.}
^{University of Gothenburg. “School Segregation in Sweden: Challenges, Opportunities and Interventions.” Last modified February 6, 2026. https://www.gu.se/en/research/schoolsegregation-in-sweden-challenges-opportunities-and-interventions.}
^{Riksrevisionen. The School Voucher System – Efficiency and Consequences (RiR 2022:17), Summary. Stockholm: Swedish National Audit Office, 2022. https://www.riksrevisionen.se/download/18.2008b69c18bd0f6ed3f24583/1671632014607/RiR_2022_17_summary.pdf}
^{Frontier Centre for Public Policy. School Vouchers in Sweden. Winnipeg: Frontier Centre for Public Policy, May 16, 2005. https://frontiercentre.org/wp-content/uploads/FB034Swedish-school-vouchers.pdf.}
^{Frontier Centre for Public Policy. School Vouchers in Sweden. Winnipeg. 6}
^{Sjöman, Anders. 2022. “New Book: 30 Years since the Swedish Free School Reform.” Centre for Business History (Näringslivshistoria). June 8, 2022. https://naringslivshistoria.se/en/news/new-book-30-years-since-the-swedish-free-school-reform/.}
^{European Commission. Education and Training Monitor 2025: Country Report — Sweden. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2025. https://op.europa.eu/webpub/eac/education-and-training-monitor/en/country-reports/sweden.html.}
^{Hansen, Kajsa Yang, Panagiotis Patsis, and Jan-Eric Gustafsson. “How does school composition mitigate socioeconomic and ethnic gaps in students’ achievement in Sweden: A long-term trend between 1988 and 2020.” (2025).}
^{Böhlmark, Anders, and Mikael Lindahl. “Independent schools and long‐run educational outcomes: Evidence from Sweden’s large‐scale voucher reform.” Economica 82, no. 327 (2015): 508-551.}
^{Hansen, Kajsa Yang, Panagiotis Patsis, and Jan-Eric Gustafsson. “How does school composition mitigate socioeconomic problems? 3}
^{Cerna, L., Andersson, H., Bannon, M., & Borgonovi, F. (2019). Strength through diversity’s Spotlight Report for Sweden. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 194, OECD Publishing.}
^{Hansen, Kajsa Yang, Panagiotis Patsis, and Jan-Eric Gustafsson. “How does school composition mitigate. 16}
^{Cerna, L., Andersson, H., Bannon, M., & Borgonovi, F. (2019). Strength through diversity. 23}

Bibliography

Alexiadou, Nafsika, and Lisbeth Lundahl. (2016). “Reforming Swedish Education by Introduction of Quasimarkets and Competition.” In New Public Management and the Reform of Education: European Lessons for Policy and Practice, edited by Helen Gunter, Emiliano Grimaldi, David Hall, and Roberto Serpieri, 66–80. London and New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis,

Böhlmark, Anders, and Mikael Lindahl. “Independent schools and long‐run educational outcomes: Evidence from Sweden’s large‐scale voucher reform.” Economica 82, no. 327 (2015): 508-551.

Cerna, L., Andersson, H., Bannon, M., & Borgonovi, F. (2019). Strength through diversity’s Spotlight Report for Sweden. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 194, OECD Publishing.

European Commission. Education and Training Monitor 2025: Country Report — Sweden. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2025. https://op.europa.eu/webpub/eac/education-and-training-monitor/en/country-reports/sweden.html.

Frontier Centre for Public Policy. School Vouchers in Sweden. Winnipeg: Frontier Centre for Public Policy, May 16, 2005. https://frontiercentre.org/wp-content/uploads/FB034Swedish-school-vouchers.pdf.

Hansen, Kajsa Yang, Panagiotis Patsis, and Jan-Eric Gustafsson. (2025). “How does school composition mitigate socioeconomic and ethnic gaps in students’ achievement in Sweden: A long-term trend between 1988 and 2020.”

Mandahu, Teresa. Education and Social Mobility in Emerging Economies: A Review of Barriers and Opportunities. International Journal of Social Science and Applied Technology 1, no. 2 (2025): 21-28. doi:10.64391/ijssat.v1i1.003.

Nelson Mandela. “Lighting Your Way to a Better Future: Speech Delivered at the Launch of Mindset Network.” July 16, 2003. http://www.mandela.gov.za/mandela_speeches/2003/030716_mindset.htm

Riksrevisionen. The School Voucher System – Efficiency and Consequences (RiR 2022:17), Summary. Stockholm: Swedish National Audit Office, 2022. https://www.riksrevisionen.se/download/18.2008b69c18bd0f6ed3f24583/1671632014607/RiR_2022_17_summary.pdf

Schleicher, Andreas. 2019. PISA 2018: Insights and Interpretations. Paris: OECD Publishing.

Sjöman, Anders. 2022. “New Book: 30 Years since the Swedish Free School Reform.” Centre for Business History (Näringslivshistoria). June 8, 2022. https://naringslivshistoria.se/en/news/new-book-30-years-since-the-swedish-free-school-reform/.

University of Gothenburg. “School Segregation in Sweden: Challenges, Opportunities and Interventions.” Last modified February 6, 2026. https://www.gu.se/en/research/schoolsegregation-in-sweden-challenges-opportunities-and-interventions.

Education Under Pressure: Global Challenges to Safety, Equity, and Access

Written by Panashe Mlambo

Introduction

Between 16 and 31 July 2025, education systems across the globe experienced a series of developments that highlight both persistent inequalities and emerging reform efforts. From infrastructure failures and violent conflict to economic pressures and gender inequality, the events of this period demonstrate the complex challenges shaping access to education worldwide.

At the same time, governments, international organisations, and local communities continue to introduce policies and initiatives aimed at strengthening education systems. Examining these developments together provides insight into the structural forces affecting global education today and the urgent need for coordinated responses to safeguard the right to education.

Safety Risks and Infrastructure Failures

Several incidents during this period exposed serious vulnerabilities in school safety and infrastructure. On 21 July 2025, a Bangladesh Air Force training jet crashed into the campus of Milestone School and College in Dhaka’s Uttara district shortly after take-off from Kurmitola Air Base. The crash killed at least 31 people, including 25 students, and injured more than 160 others (Reuters 2025). The tragedy triggered protests among students and community members who demanded accountability, compensation for victims’ families, and stricter regulations governing military training flights over populated areas.

Concerns about school safety also emerged in India, where the roof of a government school building in Rajasthan’s Jhalawar district collapsed during heavy monsoon rains, killing four children and injuring several others (Al Jazeera 2025). The incident renewed scrutiny of ageing school infrastructure, particularly in rural areas that frequently face extreme weather conditions.

In the United Kingdom, a school bus carrying children overturned on a rural road in Somerset on 17 July 2025, killing one child and injuring several others (Reuters 2025). The accident prompted renewed calls for stronger safety standards in school transport and clearer emergency protocols for school trips.

These incidents underscore the importance of consistent infrastructure maintenance, climate-resilient school construction, and effective safety protocols to protect students in educational environments.

Education in Contexts of Conflict and Displacement

Conflict and political instability continue to disrupt schooling for millions of children worldwide. In Haiti, escalating gang violence has forced schools such as Anténor Firmin in Hinche to serve as shelters for displaced families instead of functioning as learning spaces (United Nations News 2025). Teachers attempt to continue lessons through improvised classes, but shortages of food, sanitation, and educational materials make regular schooling nearly impossible.

Similarly, the growing number of Sudanese refugees in Libya has created an urgent education crisis. Many children living in Tripoli face homelessness and exploitation, while economic hardship and tuition costs have forced numerous students to drop out of school (Radio Dabanga 2025). Without sustained support, thousands of displaced children risk long-term educational loss.

Education access is even more restricted in Afghanistan, where girls remain banned from attending secondary schools and universities under Taliban policies. Many girls have therefore turned to religious madrassas, where the curriculum focuses primarily on religious instruction with limited exposure to modern subjects (Associated Press 2025). International organisations warn that millions of girls may permanently lose access to secondary education if these restrictions continue.

In Colombia, conflict and poverty continue to undermine education in regions such as Putumayo. The opening of a new branch of the Universidad de la Amazonia in Puerto Asís aims to provide young people with alternatives to illicit economies and armed group recruitment, although insecurity and economic hardship continue to threaten students’ ability to complete their studies (The New Humanitarian 2025).

These cases highlight how conflict and displacement not only interrupt schooling but also deepen long-term educational inequalities.

Gender Inequality and Social Barriers in Education

Gender inequality remains a major barrier to equitable education. In Canada, teachers have reported an increase in misogynistic attitudes among male students influenced by online content and social media personalities. Female teachers have described situations in which students refuse to acknowledge their authority, creating difficult classroom environments (CBC News 2025). Researchers argue that schools must actively address harmful gender stereotypes and promote healthier models of masculinity.

Gender disparities are also evident in Japan’s higher education system, where women remain underrepresented in academic positions and leadership roles despite decades of policy efforts to improve gender equality (Times Higher Education 2025). Experts argue that structural barriers continue to limit women’s participation and advancement within academia.

In Benin, health and sanitation challenges continue to affect girls’ ability to attend school. Menstrual poverty, combined with the absence of appropriate sanitation facilities in many schools, contributes to absenteeism and school dropout among girls. In response, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the West African Health Organisation (WAHO) distributed 5,000 reusable menstrual hygiene kits to schools as part of a regional initiative to address menstrual insecurity (News Ghana 2025). While the programme represents an important step, long-term solutions will require improved sanitation infrastructure and comprehensive menstrual health education.

These examples illustrate how social norms, gender inequality, and health-related challenges continue to shape educational experiences and access.

Economic Pressures and Structural Challenges

Financial pressures also influence education systems across the globe. In Portugal, the cost of student housing has risen sharply, with the national average rent for a private room exceeding €415 per month. The rising cost of living has made it increasingly difficult for students to afford higher education, particularly in major cities such as Lisbon and Porto (Euronews 2025).

In Egypt, overcrowded classrooms and teacher shortages continue to strain the public education system. Some classrooms reportedly accommodate more than forty students, and in extreme cases up to two hundred (Human Rights Watch 2025). Although the government has introduced pilot initiatives such as preschool programmes in mosques to expand educational capacity, education spending as a proportion of GDP remains below international benchmarks.

Policy debates in the United States also highlight concerns about education funding. Advocacy organisations warn that proposed changes to federal education programmes could affect services for vulnerable groups, including students with disabilities and adult learners.

These cases demonstrate how financial constraints and policy decisions influence both the accessibility and quality of education.

Reform Efforts and Educational Innovation

Despite these challenges, several countries are pursuing reforms aimed at strengthening education systems. In Sri Lanka, the government has proposed transitioning from an exam-centred education system to a module-based model beginning in 2026. The reform aims to encourage continuous assessment and more diverse learning methods.

Technological innovation is also shaping education policy. Rwanda’s Digital Acceleration Project, part of the Smart Rwanda Master Plan, has electrified hundreds of rural schools using off-grid solar power and expanded access to digital learning tools (The Borgen Project 2025). Similarly, Nigeria has approved solar hybrid power systems for several universities in an effort to stabilise electricity supply and support academic activities.

Early childhood education initiatives are also gaining attention. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, a new Early Childhood Development Centre has been established through cooperation between UNICEF, the European Union, and national authorities. The centre aims to identify developmental challenges early and coordinate support across the education, health, and social protection sectors (UNICEF 2025).

Community-driven initiatives are also emerging. In Malaysia, the proposed “Siswa Balik Sekolah” programme seeks to connect university students with rural primary schools, allowing them to mentor younger students in key subjects such as mathematics and science.

Together, these initiatives demonstrate the diverse strategies countries are adopting to improve access to education and strengthen learning outcomes.

Conclusion

The developments observed between 16 and 31 July 2025 reveal a global education landscape marked by both urgent challenges and ongoing reform efforts. Safety incidents in Bangladesh, India, and the United Kingdom highlight the need for stronger infrastructure and protection measures. Meanwhile, conflict and displacement continue to undermine education access in Haiti, Libya, Afghanistan, and Colombia.

At the same time, structural challenges—including gender inequality, economic pressures, and teacher shortages—affect education systems across both developed and developing countries. Nevertheless, reforms such as Sri Lanka’s curriculum changes, Rwanda’s digital infrastructure expansion, and early childhood initiatives in Bosnia and Herzegovina demonstrate that progress remains possible through sustained investment and policy innovation.

Ensuring that every child has access to safe, inclusive, and quality education will require long-term commitment from governments, international organisations, and civil society. Addressing both immediate crises and structural inequalities is essential to safeguarding the right to education worldwide.

Endnotes

Reuters. “Students protest in Bangladesh after air force jet crash kills 31, mostly children.” 2025.
Reuters. “One child killed in UK school bus crash.” 2025.
Al Jazeera. “At least four children dead in school roof collapse in India.” 2025.
United Nations News. “Schools in Haiti shelter displaced families amid violence.” 2025.
Radio Dabanga. “Sudanese children on the streets of Tripoli face homelessness and exploitation.” 2025.
Associated Press. “Afghanistan girls turn to madrassas amid education ban.” 2025.
CBC News. “Misogyny and online influencers affecting boys in classrooms.” 2025.
Times Higher Education. “Gender equality challenges in Japan’s higher education sector.” 2025.
News Ghana. “ECOWAS distributes reusable sanitary kits to Benin schools.” 2025.
Euronews. “Rising rents: Which is the cheapest city in Portugal for students to live in.” 2025.
The New Humanitarian. “Colombia’s new university aims to break the cycle of conflict.” 2025.
The Borgen Project. “The impacts of the Smart Rwanda Master Plan.” 2025.
UNICEF. “Early childhood development centre opened in Doboj.” 2025.

Reference List

Al Jazeera. (2025). At least four children dead in school roof collapse in India. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/7/25/at-least-four-children-dead-in-school-roof-collapse-in-india

Associated Press. (2025). Afghanistan girls turn to madrassas amid education ban. https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-taliban-education-girls-madrassa-7cdaf68896e8ccfda2abd71a07a02b99

CBC News. (2025). Misogyny and online influencers affecting boys in classrooms. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/misogyny-online-influencers-boys-classrooms-1.7587571

Euronews. (2025). Rising rents: Which is the cheapest city in Portugal for students to live in. https://www.euronews.com/business/2025/07/29/rising-rents-which-is-the-cheapest-city-in-portugal-for-students-to-live-in

News Ghana. (2025). ECOWAS distributes reusable sanitary kits to Benin schools. https://www.newsghana.com.gh/ecowas-distributes-reusable-sanitary-kits-to-benin-schools

Radio Dabanga. (2025). Sudanese children on the streets of Tripoli face homelessness and exploitation. https://www.dabangasudan.org/en/all-news/article/sudanese-children-on-the-streets-of-tripoli-face-homelessness-and-exploitation

Reuters. (2025). Students protest in Bangladesh after air force jet crash kills 31. https://www.reuters.com

Reuters. (2025). One child killed in UK school bus crash. https://www.reuters.com

The Borgen Project. (2025). The impacts of the Smart Rwanda Master Plan. https://borgenproject.org

The New Humanitarian. (2025). Colombia’s new university aims to break the cycle of conflict. https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org

Times Higher Education. (2025). Gender equality challenges in Japan’s higher education sector. https://www.timeshighereducation.com

UNICEF. (2025). Early childhood development centre opened in Doboj. https://www.unicef.org

United Nations News. (2025). Schools in Haiti shelter displaced families amid violence. https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/07/1165414

current issues

Education Monitor: Around The Globe between July 16th and 31st, 2025 Edition

Broken Chalk proudly presents a new edition of “Education Monitor: Around the Globe” between July 16th and 31st, 2025 Broken Chalk aims with this letter to increase public awareness of educational problems, challenges, and violations in the scope of the world. This newsletter is unique. This is a weekly newsletter in which we attempt to monitor and convey educational news from around the world in a concise manner. This monitor will be published biweekly with the effort of our young and enthusiastic team.

You can contribute to our work if you like. If you witness any violations in the scope of education, you can write the comment part of this post. Broken Chalk will try to address the issue in its next monitor edition.

July-16th-till-July-31st-2025

Broken Chalk Platform, in March 2019, was founded by a group of educators abroad who experienced and have been experiencing severe human rights violations in Turkey and had to ask for asylum in several countries.

These education volunteers also suffered greatly and started their new lives in their new countries without human rights violations. They gained respect just because they were considered human beings in those countries. However, they left one part of their minds and hearts in their homeland. They assigned themselves a new duty, and the human rights violations they left behind had to be announced to the World. A group of education volunteers who came together for this purpose started their activities under the Broken Chalk platform’s umbrella. However, the Broken Chalk platform was not enough to serve their aims. Therefore, they completed their official establishment as a Human Rights Foundation in October 2020.

Broken Chalk is now much more than a platform, and we have reviewed and enlarged our vision and mission within this framework. Violations of rights would be the first in our agenda in the field of Education all over the World. At the point we reached today, Broken Chalk opened its door to all individuals from all across the globe, from all professions, and to all individuals who say or can say ‘I also want to stand against violations of human rights in Education for our future and whole humanity, where our generations grow up together.’

Education is essential because it can help us eliminate the evils from society, introduce, and increase the good. We want to draw the public’s and stakeholders’ attention to the fact that Education is in danger in several different parts of the World. The attacks are wide-reaching, from the bombing of schools to the murder of students and teachers. Raping and sexual violence, arbitrary arrests, and forced recruitment also occurred, instigated by armed groups. Attacks on Education harm the students and teachers but also affect the communities in the short and long term.

We invite all individuals who want to stop human rights violations in Education to become Volunteers at Broken Chalk.

Education Monitor Education Monitor: Around the Globe

Education Monitor: Around The Globe between July 1st and July 15th, 2025 Edition

Broken Chalk proudly presents a new edition of “Education Monitor: Around the Globe” between July 1st and July 15th, 2025 Broken Chalk aims with this letter to increase public awareness of educational problems, challenges, and violations in the scope of the world. This newsletter is unique. This is a weekly newsletter in which we attempt to monitor and convey educational news from around the world in a concise manner. This monitor will be published biweekly with the effort of our young and enthusiastic team.

July-1st-till-July-15th-2025-1

We invite all individuals who want to stop human rights violations in Education to become Volunteers at Broken Chalk.

Education Monitor Education Monitor: Around the Globe

Education Monitor: Around The Globe between June 16th and 30th, 2025 Edition

Broken Chalk proudly presents a new edition of “Education Monitor: Around the Globe” between June 16th and 30th, 2025 Broken Chalk aims with this letter to increase public awareness of educational problems, challenges, and violations in the scope of the world. This newsletter is unique. This is a weekly newsletter in which we attempt to monitor and convey educational news from around the world in a concise manner. This monitor will be published biweekly with the effort of our young and enthusiastic team.

June-16th-till-June-30th-2025-2

We invite all individuals who want to stop human rights violations in Education to become Volunteers at Broken Chalk.

Education Monitor Education Monitor: Around the Globe

Australia’s Struggle with Underachievement: A Socio-Cultural Dilemma

Written by Alessio Manto

Introduction

Australia’s education standards are celebrated as among the best among OECD countries. Regarding international standards, Australian students perform well in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and achieve above fellow OECD countries. Aspects that are highly rewarded are the country’s goals of ‘’high equity’’ and ‘’high equality.’’ [i]

However, recent reports and declarations by the Australian Ministry of Education raise specific concerns about the country’s challenges. The OECD’s Programme of International Students Assessment of 2015 already highlighted that social segregation in Australia is amongst the highest in the world. Australia has the 8^th highest social segregation rate out of seventy-one countries and the 4^th highest in the OECD. [iii] Factors contributing to these numbers are entrenched in Australia’s unique history. This country faced intense colonial domination that impacted the Aboriginals, the first settlers in the country. Unfortunately, Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders (the two Indigenous groups in the country) are victims of high segregation in educational settings, including information and cultural barriers and overall stigma.

Individuals from these groups score remarkably lower than their classmates, with Australia still missing a plan to make them feel included in the educational system. Interestingly, the overall education achievements in Australia are declining, especially in maths and literacy. Research highlights that these poor results are often connected with socio-economic disadvantage and poor mental health. Hence, the next challenge for Australian policymakers is to diminish social inequalities, create screening programs and include the most vulnerable groups in education. These goals must be achieved while keeping in mind the unique Australian landscape, which is characterised by significant differences but at the same time has incredible human and economic resources.

The Challenges in Australian Schools Along Indigenous Lines

Challenges and Factors Affecting the Education of Indigenous Groups

Australia is characterised by a unique cultural, geographical, and socioeconomic heritage, which has a decisive impact on the country’s education landscape. For example, Australia’s vast regions in remote areas face challenges in providing education with limited resources and a lack of specialised support.[iv] These regions are vastly inhabited by different Indigenous groups that, according to various research, suffer the most prominent educational challenges in the country and have a significant education gap with non-Indigenous groups.

The National Assessment Program—Literacy of Numeracy (NAPLAN) is an annual assessment for all Australian students in years 3,5,7, and 9. It provides a national report on students’ abilities, with data used to formulate curricula and implement further education policies.[v] According to the 2024 NAPLAN results, persistent inequalities and challenges exist among disadvantaged students. Notable achievement gaps are present between Indigenous and non-indigenous students at the year 9 level, raising the alarm about the effectiveness of current educational strategies.[vi] Looking at the NAPLAN National result of 2024, on average, across all domains, Indigenous groups need additional support in proficiency level; they score less in each skill, including writing, spelling, grammar, punctuation, and numeracy, and their participation rate is substantially lower.[vii]

The factors causing lower outcomes among Indigenous groups are diverse and complex, and have been classified in research by the Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER). These can be classified into five main groups:

Disengagement caused by living in remote areas
Socio-Economic Disadvantages
Informational Barriers
Cultural Barriers
Abuse and Dysfunctional families[viii]

These factors can further be classified as internal (inside the school) and external (outside the school). Starting with external factors, informational barriers, for example, affect Indigenous groups due to the lower levels of English literacy within their communities, causing challenges in education compared to native speakers.

Living in remote areas is another external factor that challenges educational outcomes; various research has demonstrated that it enhances the risk of school absenteeism, with very remote areas (mainly inhabited by Aborigines) with almost 10 per cent higher absenteeism compared to students living close to urban areas.

Moving to socio-economic disadvantages, the most troubled area pertains to the region of Queensland, which is highly inhabited by Indigenous groups such as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. In this region, it is evidenced that the indigenous groups face difficulties accessing the costs of schools. ACER highlights the connection between socio-economic disadvantage and increased levels of school absenteeism, significantly higher than in other Australian regions. [ix]

Abuse and dysfunctional families are the last external factors hurdling a satisfactory right to education for Indigenous communities. Research shows that Indigenous children are more likely to experience family violence, mental health issues, overcrowded housing, and juvenile detention; all factors inhibiting successful learning.

The Initiatives of the Australian Government

In 2023, Australia’s Federal Minister of Education, Mr Jason Clare, affirmed that the Indigenous community is three times more likely to fall behind at school.[xi] In light of this declaration, the government of Australia, in the latest review of the National School Reform Agreement (a governmental report examining the efficacy of national educational policies), expressed the necessity to satisfy the learning needs and academic aspirations of students coming from unique backgrounds.

In the report, the Indigenous Education Consultative Meeting expressed the necessity to reshape the cultural labelling of Indigenous students as disadvantaged, since it further creates low expectations of students’ abilities and stigma. The Consultative Group expresses that even if Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders face various complex circumstances; they are not inherently disadvantaged by being Indigenous.

To adjust the educational expectations of such groups to their learning needs and aspirations, the government of Australia suggests adopting a person-centred approach, focusing on the quality of the individual rather than the specific group background. Other strategies to integrate Indigenous groups involve creating culturally responsive curricula to increase inclusion engagement and mutual respect between different groups. [xii]

In addition, since 2021, the government has created a system to provide study grants based on the number of undergraduate students coming from low socio-economic backgrounds and Indigenous students. Providers will then use these funds for specific activities tailored to students’ needs. [xiii]

The Challenge of ‘’Underachieving’’ Students

Recent reports indicate that issues related to poor academic performance in Australian schools are a widespread problem, which does not only affect Indigenous groups. [xiv] Throughout 2023 and 2024, about one in three school students fell short of minimum literacy expectations. According to the latest OECD Programme for International Student Assessment, a significant gap persists between advantaged and disadvantaged students. Sixty percent of disadvantaged students are not proficient, compared to twenty-five percent of their advantaged peers. [xv]

OECD believes that after 10 or more years of school, these students lack the reading skills to participate adequately in the workforce and be productive citizens. The worst data is in mathematics, where around 57000 Australian 15-year-olds fail to achieve international baseline levels. With such results, these students will lack sufficient mathematical knowledge to have an adequate life beyond school. [xvi]

As the Australian Council for Research (ACER) correctly points out, trajectories of low achievement often begin before school. Differences observed by year three often persist and widen in later educational stages, leading to lower cognitive, language, social, physical, and emotional development in subsequent years. This suggests that some children may need tailored support due to developmental delays and special needs, which are often linked to a disadvantaged socio-economic background. [xvii]

The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), conducted by the OECD, confirms the correlation between low school performance and disadvantaged backgrounds. This programme assesses the knowledge and skills of 15-year-olds in mathematics, reading, and science. The PISA index of economic, social, and cultural status shows that socio-economically advantaged students outperformed disadvantaged students by 25%, with 101 score points in mathematics, slightly above the OECD average (93). [xviii]

The Australian government’s policy response to the challenge of underachievement in schools has been to set higher standards and hold students and teachers accountable. The curricula have been expanded with specific standards students must meet, with an E to an A grading system. However, this strategy seems to be fallacious as it does not tackle the factors causing students to perform poorly. The only new expectation posed by the government is having stringent arrangements. However, such measures are not likely to solve pre-existing issues, requiring new policy strategies. [xix]

Addressing the Challenges in Australian Education

Education Strategies and Policy Plans for Indigenous Groups

When discussing Indigenous groups, several educational challenges have been identified. Two central issues are disengagement and socio-economic disadvantages, along with informational and cultural barriers and higher rates of family abuse. Australia needs to consider developing new measures to address these specific challenges.

For instance, allocating funds for remote schools is crucial to ensure Indigenous students have access to education. The high absenteeism rates also call for partnerships with schools to track absenteeism in real time and incentivize school participation through student rewards.

Moreover, Indigenous communities’ involvement in education must include their active participation in policymaking. This means including new members with Indigenous backgrounds and specific knowledge on tackling informational and cultural barriers in the Education Advisory Board. Class activities should be interactive, allowing Indigenous individuals to share their values and educational strengths within the group rather than forcing them to adapt to an unfamiliar context.

To facilitate this, the government needs to create study programs tailored for Indigenous students, enabling them to learn their language in a more natural setting.

Education and Policy Plans for Underachieving Students

The Australian government’s answer to this challenge is to develop new curricula to improve student achievements and overall education standards. However, Broken Chalk finds it crucial to tackle premature trajectories of low achievement. These may depend on a variety of factors, including socioeconomic disadvantages and mental health issues. Consequently, Broken Chalk deems it necessary to implement early screening interventions in Australia to discover any developmental delays in preschool-aged children.

Furthermore, to tackle the existing math and literacy challenges, Broken Chalk suggests launching a program offering supplemental math and literacy classes in the schools requiring the most support. To diminish the socio-economic disparities that, as discussed, represent one of the leading factors in education gaps, the government can develop policies to reduce inequalities, such as giving free school meals and transportation and motivating students with new extracurricular learning.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The overall image of Australian education is encouraging, with a firm structure, an active government, and economic resources. However, Australia must solve its socio-cultural dilemma to attract new creativity, originality, and identity inputs. Achieving such a goal would make Australia more compliant with its history and authenticity. Looking at Australian resources, this plan can likely be foreseeable shortly, making it one of the most interesting educational destinations.

Broken Chalk proposes some critical recommendations to enhance participation, prevent social issues, and tackle them:

Constantly monitor improvements in literacy and numeracy through the NAPLAN and PISA results, with special attention to social and cultural factors.
Track socio-economic and geographic disparities based on performances.
Assess early development indicators for the most disadvantaged families.
Evaluate mental health and engagement through surveys and based on the results, develop local and regional strategies.
Create on-campus counselling support for tracking possible abuses that students may face in their family environment.
Enhance cultural inclusion by inserting Indigenous history and language in the curricula.
Offer mentorship programs to Indigenous students with elders that would strengthen the importance of participation and education.
Provide specific courses for teachers and classes on cultural awareness to avoid social segregation in classes.

Refences

[i] Geoff N. Masters, ‘’Policy Insights: Five Challenges in Australian School Education’’, Australian Council for Educational Research: 2016, 1, https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=policyinsights

[ii] Kate Felton, “Education Minister: Australian education urgently needs practical reform’’, Education Matters, April 20, 2023, accessed 20 January 2025, https://www.educationmattersmag.com.au/education-minister-australian-education-urgently-needs-practical-reform/

[iii] State School Teachers Union of West Australia, ‘’Social Segregation in Australian Schools is Amongst the Highest in the World,’’ accessed 20 January 2025, https://www.sstuwa.org.au/research/social-segregation-australian-schools-amongst-highest-world

[iv] Therese M Cumming, Jennifer L Lolly and Aaron Saint-James, ‘’Australia at an educational crossroads: special schools and inclusive education.’’ Front. Educ.: 2024, 1, 10.3389/feduc.2024.1422089

[v] Matrix Blog, ‘’What Does My Child’s NAPLAN Report Mean?’’, Matrix Education, accessed 20 January 2025, https://www.matrix.edu.au/what-does-my-childs-naplan-report-mean/#:~:text=NAPLAN%20is%20used%20to%20provide,%2C%20grammar%2C%20punctuation%20and%20numeracy.

[vi] Evrim Ağacı Article

[vii] Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, ‘’ NAPLAN National Results’’, accessed 20 January 2025, https://www.acara.edu.au/reporting/national-report-on-schooling-in-australia/naplan-national-results

[viii] Tony Dreise, Gina Milgate, Bill Perrett and Troy Meston, “ Policy Insights: Indigenous School Attendance: Creating Expectations that are ‘Really High’ and ‘Highly Real’ “, Australian Council for Educational Research:2016, 1.

[ix] Toni Dreise et al. Policy Insights Article

[x] Toni Dreise et al. Policy Insights Article

[xi] Kate Felton Article

[xii] Productivity Commission 2022, ‘’ Review of the National School Reform Agreement: Interim Report”, (Canberra: Australian Government, 2022) 1.

[xiii] OECD(2023), ‘’Education policy outlook in Australia”, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No.67, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ce7a0965-en.

[xiv] Amy Haywood, ‘’ Australia’s Forgotten Education Problem”, Grattan Institute, December 2, 2024, accessed 20 January 2025, https://grattan.edu.au/news/australias-forgotten-education-problem/#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20latest%20OECD,with%2025%20per%20cent%20of; Bianca de Marchi, ‘’ NAPLAN results again show 1 in 3 students don’t meet minimum standards. These kids need more support’’, The Conversation, August 13, 2024, accessed 20 January 2025, https://theconversation.com/naplan-results-again-show-1-in-3-students-dont-meet-minimum-standards-these-kids-need-more-support-236688

[xv] Grattan Institute Article

[xvi] Geoff N Masters Article

[xvii] Geoff N Masters Article

[xviii] OECD (2023), PISA 2022 Results (Volume I): The State of Learning and Equity in Education, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-en.

[xix] Geoff N Masters Article

Education Challenges Educational Challenges

Learning Under Army Rule: The Militarization of Education in Myanmar

Written By: Liina Knirsch

On February 1st, 2021, the military in Myanmar seized political power in a coup, abruptly ending a fragile decade of democratic progress. This coup has severely disrupted the social and political life of the people in Myanmar, leading to many fleeing the country and seeking asylum. For those who remain, engaging in conflict is inevitable. Myanmar has had a longstanding history of insurgency groups which have engaged in fighting against the national army (Maizland, 2022). Following the coup, oppositional parties have formed a shadow government, which has led to the mobilization of many different armed groups across the country. The fighting between these groups and the military junta has been increasing, amounting to a civil war (Maizland, 2022). According to UNHCR (2024), over 3.5 million people are now internally displaced in Myanmar, and many have fled to neighboring Thailand. Further, the historically vulnerable and repressed Rohingya population are increasingly attempting to cross over into Bangladesh to escape violence and ethnic segregation after they have been caught in the crossfire between the army and the armed Arakan Army (UN News, 2025).

As a result of this civil war, many young people have been brought into this conflict. The military junta has enforced mandatory conscription for all men between the ages of 18-35 and all women between 18-27 (Human Rights Myanmar, 2025). Failure to comply with this rule can be punishable by up to five years in prison. As a result, more young people have fled the country or been driven to join the insurgency.

Historically, young people in Myanmar have been crucial in democratic movements, with schools and universities serving as grounds for discussion and organization against military rule. Consequently, the army views such institutions as a threat to their power, enforcing harsh measures to prevent such movements from forming again. Schools are now being used as sites for control and military recruitment (Human Rights Myanmar, 2025).

Censorship on Education

The military junta has been particularly adamant in its efforts to censor freedom of speech. The organization Freedom House has marked Myanmar with a “not free” status (Freedom House, 2024). Such censorship is also present in the national curriculum. Teachers are forced to exclude sensitive and political topics, such as the ethnic history of the country or education on democracy. Any deviation from the military junta approved subjects serves as grounds for imprisonment. Moreover, schools are now used to glorify the military regime and serve as recruitment grounds for the military (Brown, 2024).

In light of this censorship, many teachers have quit or have started teaching at underground schools. Following the coup, 230.000 teachers went on strike (Dejsupa, 2023). Many have left the capital, Yangon, to teach in rebel-controlled areas. Others have tried to teach alternative curricula online; however, this means having to bypass the extreme censorship placed on the internet. This means that there is a high number of Non-Formal Education (NFE) programs in the country, which can present further challenges when it comes to accreditation especially when moving on to higher education (Voices Team, 2025). This means many students cannot convert their learning into officially recognized diplomas, sit for national exams, or attend university under the junta if they have received NFE education.

Detainment of Teachers and Students

Following the coup, 125.000 teachers in Myanmar were suspended for joining civil disobedience movements, comprising of more than ¼ of the entire teacher workforce. Over 500 teachers have also been arrested (Human Rights Myanmar, 2025) since the coup, and several have received harsh prison sentences for their alleged involvement in anti-government activities. In 2023, Ei Shwe Sin Myint, who was head teacher at an anti-government school, was sentenced to 20 years in prison under anti-terrorism law (RFA Burmese, 2023).

Students are also facing grave consequences for their involvement in anti-governmental activities. Arrests against young people in Myanmar have been widespread. Sometimes a clear motive is given, such as the possession of textbooks. Other times such arrests are simply aimed at inciting fear (Human Rights Myanmar, 2025).

University student unions have been particularly scrutinized by the military junta. This is significant as student unions have historically played a major role in the struggle for democracy and resistance in the country, having had a prominent role in the 1962 and 1988 anti-military protests (Frontier, 2022). Student unions across universities have been forced to disband and have been replaced by student associations which are believed to be supported by the State Administration Council. Leaders of such unions also believe that the hostility they face today stems from their role in the mass strikes known as the Civil Disobedience Movement. Student Unions boycotted classes which embarrassed the military junta and have continued to result in low university enrollment rates of less than 10 percent today (Frontier, 2022).

Attacks on Schools

Particularly in areas in which the resistance has a strong influence, attacks on the education sector are widespread. On the 12^th of May 2025, a military airstrike targeted a school run by the oppositional National Unity Government in the Sagaing region, killing 20 students and two teachers (Peck, 2025). While the military generally denies involvement, such airstrikes are justified by claims that resistance fighters were sheltering in the attacked areas. Attacks against schools are a violation of international law as such institutions are granted special status and protection. Reports show that over 200 schools have been targeted by military airstrikes since 2021 with 146 being destroyed, 64 people killed, and 106 injured (RFA Burmese, 2024)[1]. This shows that the attacks are deliberate and targeted, reflecting the broader efforts to undermine education in the country.

Conclusion

The military junta’s systematic repression of education in Myanmar highlights how schools and universities are seen not only as centers of learning but also as potential sites of resistance. The efforts of the military junta to undermine the freedom of education are an attempt to control the young generation and rewrite history favorably towards them. Educational institutions are viewed as grounds for undermining dissent and places of active recruitment for the military. Through censorship, arrests, and airstrikes, the military is sending a clear message to young people and educators in the country: that dissent will be punished.

Yet, the resistance within society also demonstrates the resilience of educators and students, who, in the face of repression, are creating alternative education systems to protect the freedom of expression and speech in the country. However, the low school and university enrollment rates also paint a worrying picture about the future of the youth in Myanmar. With many educated young people leaving the country, rebuilding the education sector will become increasingly difficult in a future Myanmar that may struggle with a lasting brain drain and generational learning gaps.

Looking forward, many challenges will persist in the educational sector. However, more needs to be done internationally to exert pressure on the military junta to stop attacks on schools and the censorship of education. Further, initiatives which support Non-Formal Education will continue to be crucial in guaranteeing education for the youth. Organizations such as UNICEF, the World Bank, and the British Council are supporting these programs financially and with educational training. For the long-term future of education in Myanmar, it is pivotal that these alternative systems can endure the pressure they are placed under. Whether the country can eventually transition back to democratic governance is currently unpredictable, but the resistance and endurance of students and educators demonstrate a commitment to a better and more free future.

Bibliography

Brown, Martha. “Higher Education in Myanmar: Coup, Conflict, and Educational Crisis.” In Higher Education in Southeast Asia, edited by L. Pe Symaco, 67–89. Leeds: Emerald Publishing Limited, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-367920240000049006.

Dejsupa, Thanyarat. “Myanmar’s Education System Goes Underground.” NHK WORLD, March 30, 2023. https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/backstories/1939/.

Freedom House. Freedom in the World 2024: Myanmar. 2024. https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024.

Frontier. “Inside the Junta’s War on Student Unions.” Frontier Myanmar, May 24, 2022. https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/inside-the-juntas-war-on-student-unions/.

Human Rights Myanmar. “2025 Annual Report.” Human Rights Myanmar, 2025. https://humanrightsmyanmar.org/myanmars-militarisation-of-education/

Maizland, Lindsay. “Myanmar’s Troubled History: Coups, Military Rule, and Ethnic Conflict.” Council on Foreign Relations, January 31, 2022. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/myanmar-history-coup-military-rule-ethnic-conflict-rohingya.

Peck, Grant. “An Airstrike in Central Myanmar Kills up to 22 People at a Bombed School, Reports Say.” AP News, May 12, 2025. https://apnews.com/article/myanmar-airstrike-school-saigaing-resistance-military-00bcff30abb05c1210514b6adc5c6a7f.

Radio Free Asia Burmese. “Nearly 200 Schools in Myanmar Hit by Junta Air Strikes since Military Coup.” RFA Burmese, November 4, 2024. https://www.rfa.org/english/myanmar/2024/11/04/myanmar-schools-air-strikes/.

Radio Free Asia Burmese. “Teacher Sentenced to 20 Years in Prison under Anti-Terror Law.” RFA Burmese, 2023. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/mandalay-teacher-sentenced-07202023035551.html

Reuters. “More than 125,000 Myanmar Teachers Suspended for Opposing Coup.” Reuters, May 23, 2021. https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/more-than-125000-myanmar-teachers-suspended-opposing-coup-2021-05-23/.

UNHCR. Myanmar Emergency. 2024. https://www.unhcr.org/emergencies/myanmar-emergency.

UN News. “Myanmar on the ‘Path to Self-Destruction’ if Violence Does Not End.” UN News, June 11, 2025. https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/06/1164231.

Voices Team. “Examining NFE in Myanmar: Challenges and Insights.” British Council, 2025. https://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/research-under-fire-%E2%80%93-finding-out-about-nfe-troubled-myanmar.

[1] Radio Free Asia Burmese. “Nearly 200 Schools in Myanmar Hit by Junta Air Strikes since Military Coup.” RFA Burmese, November 4, 2024. https://www.rfa.org/english/myanmar/2024/11/04/myanmar-schools-air-strikes/.

Barriers to education for girls and children with disabilities in Somalia

Written by Pina Bontius

Introduction

Somalia has a variety of issues among its education sector, one of which is equality of education. While enrollment rates and expected time in school are low in general, they more negatively affect vulnerable social groups (GPE Secretariat, 2024). Two significant vulnerable groups in Somalia which face this problem are children with disabilities and girls; this article will report which barriers those two groups face in terms of education, and what the impact of such barriers is on the quality of education they receive.

Barriers for children with disabilities

Children with disabilities face many challenges in education. There is social stigma around the issue of disability, which disincentivizes parents from identifying their child as disabled in the first place, along with a lack of access to healthcare which would detect disabilities. Therefore, the real proportion of children with disabilities is unknown, which makes it harder to detect the issue and find solutions (UNESCO, 2022). However, existing data shows that disability is a significant barrier to education for Somali children. One issue is negative community attitudes (UNICEF, 2022, p. 80). One fourth of parents included in a 2022 study reported that negative attitudes of teachers and other members of the community were the primary reason for not enrolling their disabled child in school (UNESCO, 2022, p. 80). Social discrimination against disabled students is prevalent; for example, 92% of girls with disabilities reported that they have experienced discrimination at school, which makes it an unsafe and uncomfortable learning environment (UNESCO, 2022, p. 80). Moreover, parents themselves have expressed the view that due to such stigma, people with disabilities will be unable to find employment even after fully completing their education; therefore, there is less incentive to send such children to school, as it would not increase the chances of employment (UNESCO, 2022, p. 80).

A second important issue regarding disability is a lack of accessible infrastructure and aids. Due to widespread poverty in the country, families are often unable to provide such learning aids by themselves, and the schools are not equipped with the materials to compensate for that. For instance, according to a SISEND study in 2022, no schools offered audio books or books in braille for visually impaired students, which is significant because visual impairment is the second most prevalent form of disability among Somali students (UNESCO, 2022, p. 80). Additionally, the water, sanitation and hygiene facilities are not equally accessible to disabled students and to able-bodied students. 69% of schools in 2022 lacked physically accessible toilet facilities, and 62% lacked access to clean drinking water; this may disincentivize students with disabilities and create an uncomfortable unhygienic learning environment (UNESCO, 2022, p.80). There are several programs, such as one supported by the Global Partnership for Education, which aim to empower children with disabilities by providing assisting devices such as hearing aids or magnifiers; however, the supply is still too low, and students have to share these resources among themselves (Global Partnership for Education, 2024a).

In 2020, Somalia had 5 schools for students with special needs, but these still face significant issues, such as lack of accessibility for students with disabilities who do not live near such schools, and a lack of teacher training which would specialize in the needs of disabled students, as well as a standardized teacher training curriculum (UNESCO, 2022, p. 76). Additionally, these schools focus on a specific form of disability, usually the more prevalent ones such as hearing and visual impairment, which means that students with other disabilities are excluded (UNESCO, p. 76).

Barriers for girls

Girls in Somalia have less effective access to education than boys. According to UNESCO (2022, p. 74) boys’ education is prioritized due to reasons such as financial struggle, societal norms, safety concerns and early marriage, hence girls are 1.35 times more likely to not be enrolled in school than boys. This creates a gender gap in education, affording boys more opportunities from the start. Even among the girls who do attend school, they tend to drop out earlier and have a shorter educational experience. On average, the expected duration of girls’ education is 1.48 years, compared to the boys, for which the average expected time spent in school is 1.95 years (UNESCO, 2022, p. 20). This effectively means that boys spend 30% more time in school than girls, widening the gender gap in education and therefore future employment opportunities (UNESCO, 2022, p. 83). The gap is even more pronounced when considering the fact that boys enter school earlier than girls on average; 50% of boys enter school at the age of 6, which is the official school-entry age, while only 44% of the girls enroll at the same age (UNESCO, 2022, p. 84). Additionally, their access to education peaks at age 11, while for girls, it is at age 12; this means that boys both have a temporal advantage, and get more opportunities for education earlier on, with a 6% higher effective access to education than girls (UNESCO, 2022, p. 84). This disparity can also be observed in learning outcomes; for instance, girls are at a disadvantage to the boys in every grade, and men in Somalia have almost twice the literacy rate of women, with 49.7% of men being literate, compared to only 25.8% of women (Cline, 2018).

The reasons for such a gender gap need to be understood and addressed to solve the issue. The most prevalent factors are social gender expectations, early marriage, low access to WASH facilities and a lack of female teachers. Social expectations dictate that girls should stay at home and help with housework and childcare, as opposed to learning in school (Cline, 2018). Especially with the high rates of poverty in Somalia, families might not be able to afford school fees for all the children, and will prioritize the education of their sons over the daughters due to such gender expectations (Horn Observer, 2025). Connected with this is the issue of early marriage and early pregnancy (Global Partnership for Education, 2024b). According to UNICEF, data from 2022 shows that 17% of women between the ages of 20-24 were married before the age of 15, and 35% under the age of 18 (UNICEF, 2022, p. 68). Child marriage is a significant factor in girls’ school drop-out rates (Ali Mohamud, 2020). It negatively impacts girls’ education by compelling them to drop out of school and perform household or childcare duties; specifically in Africa, each year of child marriage reduces the girls’ likelihood of literacy by 5.6%, and reduces the likelihood of them completing secondary school by 6.5% (Wodon et al., 2017, p. 55). The effect between early marriage and education is bidirectional; early marriage reduces the probability of school attendance, while increasing education reduced the probability of child marriage (Wodon et al., 2017. pp. 55-58). Therefore, increasing education through means such as abolishing school fees, improving teacher quality and curriculum, and direct cash transfers, might reduce the rates of child marriage, which in return increases the girls’ chances to complete their education (Wodon et al., 2017, p. 58). Conversely, cracking down on early marriage allows girls to stay in school longer, which in turn decreases child marriage rates.

Other reasons for a gender gap in education in Somalia include a low access to WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) facilities, as well as a low share of female teachers. Over 25% of schools in Somalia do not have sanitary toilet facilities, and 15% do not have access to clean water (UNESCO, 2022, pp. 140-141). Access to water, sanitation and hygiene facilities is incredibly important for young girls’ menstrual hygiene management. If faced with a lack of such facilities, girls cannot manage their menstrual cycle at school, and have to stay at home during that period; this causes them to miss school and fall behind the boys who do not face such setbacks; an issue which has been emphasized by some international organizations (Global Partnership for Education, 2024b). Secondly, over 80% of teachers in Somalia are male, which is likely a consequence of the gender gap in education itself; in secondary schools, female teachers make up only 3% of the teaching staff (UNESCO, 2022, p. 124). This can be problematic both due to safety concerns, and a lack of role models for girls in education; they might be less motivated to continue education if they cannot see themselves represented in such roles and feel understood in the classroom. Additionally, the UNESCO (2022) study showed a pressing need for Somali teachers to undergo training for inclusiveness and gender responsiveness, as to motivate young girls in school and provide them with the proper and inclusive learning environment.

Conclusion

Though there are programs and initiatives to increase equality of education in Somalia, vulnerable groups such as disabled children and girls still face unique challenges preventing them from attending school or receiving quality education. One part of the issue can be addressed through improving infrastructure in terms of accessibility for disabled students and in terms of volume of WASH facilities for girls, while a bigger challenge will be addressing the normative and societal barriers which disincentivize such vulnerable groups from attending school. Negative social attitudes, discrimination, and social gender expectations are among the most significant factors which prevent effective access to education; though addressing them is difficult, it is also necessary to ensure all children in Somalia get a fair chance at obtaining quality education.

Bibliography

Ali Mohamud, B. (2020). To end child marriage, Somali mindsets must change. World Bank Blogs. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/youth-transforming-africa/end-child-marriage-somali-mindsets-must-change

Empowering children with disabilities through inclusive education in Somalia. (2024a). Global Partnership for Education. https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/empowering-children-disabilities-through-inclusive-education-somalia

Gedo: Progress and Challenges in Girls’ Education in Somalia. (2025). [Horn Observer]. Hornobserver.Com. http://hornobserver.com/articles/3110/Gedo-Progress-and-Challenges-in-Girls-Education-in-Somalia

GPE Secretariat. (2024). Transforming education in Somalia. Global Partnership for Education. https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/transforming-education-somalia

Somalia: Despite challenges, education paves the way for a promising future. (2024b). Global Partnership for Education. https://www.globalpartnership.org/results/country-journeys/somalia-despite-challenges-education-paves-way-promising-future

UNESCO. (2022). Education sector analysis: Federal Government of Somalia: Assessing opportunities for rebuilding the country through education (p. 214). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000380838&file=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_b28ce78f-c68a-4aad-8f07-076b2f4df1df%3F_%3D380838eng.pdf&updateUrl=updateUrl7986&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000380838/PDF/380838eng.pdf.multi&fullScreen=true&locale=en#p30

Wodon, Q., Savadogo, A., Yedan, A., Edmeades, J., Kes, A., John, N., Murithi, L., Steinhaus, M., & Petroni, S. (2017). Economic Impacts of Child Marriage: Global Synthesis Report.

Education for all Educational Challenges

Estonia’s Teacher Shortages: A Threat to Educational Excellence

Photo by Christina Morillo from www.pexels.com

Written by Siti Hajar Auliannisa

Introduction

Estonia has a rich history dating back to the 13th century, and it has adopted innovative approaches that prioritize equal access to high-quality education. The comprehensive system provides free education at all levels and gives schools more autonomy by allowing them to tailor curricula, teaching methods, and administrative decisions.

Education in Estonia is legally free, unless parents choose to send their children to private schools. Early childhood education, basic education, upper secondary education, and higher education are the four levels of education. The structure of the education system allows everyone to progress from one level of education to the next. Furthermore, the Estonian education system is decentralized, with clear divisions of responsibility between the state, local government, and schools. The language of instruction is mainly Estonian, but other languages may be used as stipulated in the legislation.

According to the PISA 2022 educational survey, Estonian 15-year-olds have the absolute best knowledge and skills in Europe and are among the top eight in the world. Among Estonia is ranked first-2nd in mathematics with Switzerland, first in science, and first-2nd in reading with Ireland.

According to PISA, Estonian headmasters and teachers enjoy significant autonomy, ranking the country first among nations for the freedom educators have in designing school curricula and contributing to management decisions.

However, despite the international acclaim for Estonia’s education system, the growing shortage of qualified teachers stands out as a major concern. This issue, highlighted by the survey, is a critical challenge the nation is working to address in the coming years to preserve its educational excellence.

The Scope of the Problem

For over a decade, state statistics and international comparisons have highlighted a troubling trend in Estonia’s teaching workforce, with conditions deteriorating each year. The average age of Estonian teachers is approximately 50, and the proportion of educators aged over 60 has risen from 17% to 24% between 2015 and 2023 (Haridussilm, 2024; OECD, 2020). Meanwhile, the percentage of qualified teachers—those with a teaching certificate and a master’s degree or equivalent—dropped from 87% to 81% in general education schools from 2017 to 2022 (Ministry of Education and Research, 2022).

Additionally, the latest TALIS report (OECD, 2020) shows that 41% of teachers under 35 in Estonia are considering leaving the profession within the next five years, the highest percentage among all TALIS countries. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated the situation, with nearly a third more teachers leaving their roles in the 2021-2022 academic year compared to two years prior (Arenguseire Keskus, 2023). These challenges pose a significant threat to the stability of Estonia’s education system.

Underlying Causes of Teacher Shortages

Economic Factors

The teaching profession’s social status, encompassing low salaries and limited societal recognition, serves as a significant deterrent. Across many countries, teachers earn less than professionals with similar qualifications. In Estonia, the average teacher’s salary equates to 92% of the national average salary for specialists with higher education. In 2023, lower secondary teachers earned an average of USD 37,506, which is 24% higher than the starting salary. However, this remains uncompetitive compared to earnings in other fields, making it difficult to retain teachers in the profession.

While salary is not the primary reason individuals pursue teaching, inadequate pay can drive even highly motivated teachers and aspiring educators to leave the field.

Social Perceptions

The position and perception of teachers in Estonia present a paradox: despite producing some of the world’s best educational outcomes, a significant number of teachers report dissatisfaction with their jobs and the level of societal appreciation. Many teachers perceive their own efficacy as low and view societal attitudes toward the teaching profession as overly critical. Consequently, teaching is not a highly attractive career choice for upper secondary school graduates, leading to a workforce that is increasingly feminized and ageing.

Research has also highlighted various personal factors influencing teacher retention. While the impact of gender is mixed, younger and less experienced teachers are more likely to leave the profession. Many young professionals are opting for higher-paying, more flexible career paths outside of teaching. Conversely, teachers with traditional educational qualifications tend to stay in the field longer compared to those who enter through alternative certification programs.

Workload and Burnout

Teacher retention is heavily influenced by well-being and health, with burnout playing a significant role. For those who choose to stay in the profession, the workload can be overwhelming. Estonian teachers juggle extensive administrative duties alongside the challenges of inclusive education and managing diverse classrooms. Additionally, the national curriculum, often criticized for being excessively demanding, exacerbates their workload, leaving limited opportunities for creativity or personal development.

Impact of Teacher Shortages

On students

Teacher shortages have a profound impact on students’ education, causing disruptions in learning, reducing opportunities, and hindering academic success. The absence of qualified teachers often results in increased reliance on substitute educators or larger class sizes, which disrupt the continuity of instruction and negatively affect students’ understanding of the material.

Moreover, schools facing teacher shortages may be forced to cancel advanced or specialized courses, such as higher-level mathematics or science, limiting students’ academic opportunities and preparation for higher education. Research also suggests that teacher shortages contribute to lower academic performance, as larger class sizes and less qualified instructors may struggle to meet the varied learning needs of students effectively.

On teachers

The decentralized structure of Estonia’s education system adds another layer of complexity. While schools and municipalities enjoy considerable autonomy, this flexibility has led to difficulties in resource distribution, long-term planning, and addressing the specific needs of individual schools. Local municipalities, in particular, often struggle to offer adequate support for teachers, which increases their stress and workload, further aggravating the teacher shortage. Although teacher training programs are theoretically robust, they often fall short in providing enough practical experience, leaving new educators unprepared for the challenges of classroom management and inclusive education. Consequently, many teachers either leave the profession early or decide against entering it altogether, intensifying the shortage.

On the Education System

The National Audit Office highlights that the shortage of adequately qualified teachers undermines the quality of general education. Their analysis reveals that in the context of teacher shortages, lessons in natural and exact sciences are often taught by teachers from other subjects or “career switchers.” While these teachers may hold the required master’s degree and teaching qualification, they often lack the specific training needed for the subjects they teach. The profession’s reputation has been further damaged by negative media portrayals and the increasing practice of employing unqualified individuals, making recruitment even more difficult.

Etonia’s Efforts to Address the Issue

Rethinking teacher schedules, Professional Learning, and Leadership

Estonia is actively reimagining the teaching profession, exploring innovative approaches to school organization that prioritize more flexible schedules for teachers, relevant professional development, and enhanced teacher leadership. These strategies align with calls for similar changes in the U.S. as well.

Diversifying the Teacher Pool

Estonia is working to diversify its teacher workforce by attracting individuals pursuing second careers and offering part-time positions for professionals from other fields.

Modernizing Teacher Education Programs

The reforms are extending beyond the classroom to teacher education, with preparation programs experimenting with “learn on the job” training and emphasizing the use of digital tools to improve learning and tailor education to students’ needs. Additionally, teacher education students are taking on new roles to assist classroom teachers while gaining valuable learning experiences from them.

Increasing Teacher Salaries

Like many other regions, Estonia analyzed teacher salaries and determined that stronger financial incentives were necessary to attract and retain educators. From 2016 to 2020, teacher salaries increased by approximately 40%, and this year, the Education Minister pledged to raise salaries to 120% of the average wage in Estonia by 2023. Additionally, new teachers are offered bonuses to take positions in underserved rural areas.

Conclusion

In conclusion, while Estonia’s education system continues to excel globally, the persistent teacher shortages pose a critical challenge to maintaining its high standards. The root causes, including aging educators, low salaries, societal perceptions, and burnout, demand immediate attention. The nation’s efforts to address these issues—through increased salaries, modernized teacher training, diversified recruitment, and innovative school organization—show promise, but more comprehensive strategies and sustained investment are necessary. Without a robust and well-supported teaching workforce, Estonia risks compromising the very foundation of its educational success and the future development of its students.

References

Arenguseire Keskus. “The Future for the Next Generation of Teachers: Trends and Scenarios up to 2040.” November 15, 2024. https://arenguseire.ee/en/reports/the-future-for-the-next-generation-of-teachers-trends-and-scenarios-up-to-2040/.

Estonian News. “Shortage of Qualified Teachers Is Greater in Estonia Than Previously Thought.” January 26, 2024. https://news.postimees.ee/7947387/shortage-of-qualified-teachers-is-greater-in-estonia-than-previously-thought.

European Commission. “National Reforms in School Education—Estonia.” Eurydice. Last updated March 29, 2023. https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/estonia/national-reforms-general-school-education.

Eva Toome. “PISA 2022: Estonia Consistently Among the World’s Best.” Education Estonia, September 10, 2024. https://www.educationestonia.org/estonias-pisa-2022-results-consistently-among-the-worlds-best/.

Gorard, Stephen, Mark Ledger, Beng Huat See, and Rebecca Morris. “What Are the Key Predictors of International Teacher Shortages?” Research Papers in Education, October 23, 2024, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2024.2414427.

Haridussilm. “Teachers.” Accessed January 11, 2025. https://www.haridussilm.ee/ee/tasemeharidus/haridustootajad/opetajad.

Ministry of Education and Research. “Haridus- ja Teadusministeeriumi 2022. aasta tulemusar-uande analüütiline lisa” [Analytical Annex to the Ministry of Education and Research Performance Report 2022]. 2022. https://www.hm.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2023-08/2022_TA_anal%C3%BC%C3%BCtiline_lisa.pdf.

NCEE. “How Estonia Is Addressing Its Teacher Shortage.” January 20, 2022. https://ncee.org/quick-read/how-estonia-is-addressing-its-teacher-shortage/.

OECD. TALIS 2018 Results (Volume II): Teachers and School Leaders as Valued Professionals. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2020.

Education Challenges Educational Challenges

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