Onderwijsuitdagingen in Indonesië

Geschreven door Leticia Cox, Vertaald door Shoshanah Gerstenbluth

Een derde van de Indonesische bevolking bestaat uit kinderen – dat zijn ongeveer 85 miljoen jonge mensen, waarmee Indonesië het op drie na grootste kinderbestand ter wereld heeft. Onderwijs voorziet de mensheid van informatie, kennis, vaardigheden en ethiek en helpt ons onze verantwoordelijkheden tegenover de samenleving, familie en natie te begrijpen, te respecteren en na te leven. Bovendien stelt onderwijs ons in staat vooruitgang te boeken.

Onderwijs is een levenspad waarmee men leert en kennis deelt met anderen. “Onderwijs is de grote motor van persoonlijke ontwikkeling. Het is door onderwijs dat de dochter van een boer arts kan worden, de zoon van een mijnwerker het hoofd van de mijn, en het kind van landarbeiders de president van een grote natie,” aldus de voormalige Zuid-Afrikaanse president Nelson Mandela.

In Indonesië, zoals in veel delen van de wereld, zijn kinderen verplicht twaalf jaar onderwijs te volgen. Dit bestaat uit basisonderwijs (klas 1-6), lager secundair onderwijs (klas 7-9), hoger secundair onderwijs (klas 10-12) en eventueel hoger onderwijs. Jongeren kunnen kiezen tussen openbare, niet-sektarische scholen, beheerd door het Ministerie van Nationaal Onderwijs (Kemdiknas), en religieuze (islamitische, christelijke, katholieke of boeddhistische) scholen, die semi-particulier of particulier gefinancierd worden en onder het beheer van het Ministerie van Religieuze Zaken vallen.

Meer dan twee jaar na de COVID-19-pandemie worstelen zowel studenten als docenten in Indonesië en de rest van de wereld nog steeds met een ernstige leercrisis. Een rapport uit juni 2022 van UNICEF, UNESCO, de Wereldbank en anderen onthult dat naar schatting 70 procent van de 10-jarigen wereldwijd niet in staat is om een eenvoudige tekst te begrijpen, tegenover 57 procent vóór de pandemie.

Foto van Ed Us via Unsplash

De nasleep van COVID-19.

Al vóór de COVID-19-pandemie presteerde het Indonesische onderwijssysteem onder de verwachtingen van het curriculum, met aanzienlijke verschillen in prestaties tussen geslachten, regio’s, kinderen met en zonder handicap, en andere gemarginaliseerde groepen. De meeste geteste leerlingen presteerden twee niveaus onder hun eigen klasniveau. Zo bleek dat leerlingen van groep 5 gemiddeld op het leesniveau van groep 3 zaten.

Onderzoek en veldonderzoeken wijzen uit dat een van de oorzaken hiervan een gebrek aan duidelijke leerdoelen vóór aanvang van onderwijsactiviteiten was. Zonder helderheid over de te bereiken doelstellingen hadden studenten en docenten onvoldoende richting binnen het leerproces. In sommige regio’s is er zelfs een toename in het aantal basisschoolleerlingen dat niet kan lezen bij aanvang van de schoolloopbaan.

De massale sluiting van scholen en het verlies van banen als gevolg van COVID-19 hebben deze situatie verergerd. Lagere prestaties komen sterker naar voren bij kwetsbare kinderen, waaronder kinderen uit gezinnen met lage inkomens, kinderen met een handicap en kinderen uit onderontwikkelde gebieden, die het grootste risico lopen om buiten het onderwijs te vallen.

Zelfs vóór de pandemie waren kinderhuwelijken al een probleem in sommige armere regio’s. Er zijn aanwijzingen dat het aantal kinderhuwelijken tijdens de pandemie toenam, omdat gezinnen met lage inkomens probeerden hun economische lasten te verlichten.

Kinderarbeid wordt nu vaker thuis of ter ondersteuning van het huishoudelijk inkomen verricht, bijvoorbeeld in de landbouw en visserij, omdat lockdown-maatregelen de kansen op werk verder beperkten.

Ook Indonesische kinderen met een handicap staan voor grote uitdagingen. Onderzoek heeft aangetoond dat de handicap van kinderen of hun ouders van invloed is op hun leerproces en op de kans dat ze naar school terugkeren.

Slechte onderwijsvoorzieningen en infrastructuur

Slechte voorzieningen in het onderwijs en daarboven de kwaliteit van de infrastructuur vormen een groot deel van de onderwijsuitdagingen in Indonesië. Ongeveer 75 procent van de Indonesische scholen ligt in rampgevoelige gebieden. Indonesië, dat bijna 800.000 vierkante mijl beslaat, is kwetsbaar voor aardbevingen, tsunami’s, harde wind, vulkaanuitbarstingen, aardverschuivingen en overstromingen.

Ongelijke toegang tot internet en verschillen in de bevoegdheid van leerkrachten en de kwaliteit van het onderwijs vormen eveneens grote uitdagingen bij de implementatie van afstandsonderwijs. Leren op afstand, vooral voor jonge kinderen en gezien de variatie in digitale toegang binnen het land, versterkt de ongelijkheid onder gemarginaliseerde kinderen.

Lage kwaliteit van leerkrachten

Een belangrijke oorzaak van de lage onderwijskwaliteit in Indonesië is de beperkte vaardigheid van de leerkrachten, wat vaak het gevolg is van het selectieproces. In plaats van een selectie gebaseerd op professionele onderwijzers, is het aanwervingsproces vaak gericht op het voldoen aan eisen van de ambtelijke sector.

Veel leerkrachten missen de professionaliteit om hun taken uit te voeren zoals omschreven in Artikel 39 van Wet nr. 20 van 2003: lessen plannen, uitvoeren, leerresultaten beoordelen, mentorschap en opleiding geven, onderzoek verrichten en bijdragen aan de gemeenschap.

Bij de aanwerving van leerkrachten binnen het overheidsapparaat worden doorgaans geen hoge eisen gesteld aan de didactische vaardigheden die een professionele leerkracht nodig heeft.

In een recent onderzoek scoorden docenten in het onderwijssysteem die de ‘Teacher Competency Test’ (UKG) aflegden, die hun vaardigheden in lesgeven en vakkennis test, vaak lager dan de minimale norm. Het onderzoek wijst verder uit dat een aanzienlijk aantal docenten niet voldoet aan de door de overheid gestelde normen qua opleiding: dit betreft 64,09% in het lager secundair onderwijs, 61,5% in het hoger secundair onderwijs, en 10,14% in het beroepsonderwijs.

Het leraarschap vraagt om complexe vaardigheden en een sterke motivatie om studenten te begeleiden. Tegelijkertijd ligt binnen het aanwervingsproces de nadruk op nationalisme en algemene kennis, niet op onderwijsvaardigheden.

Aankomende leerkrachten die bij de selectie van essentiële competenties het hoogst scoren, maken een schriftelijke toets over de inhoud van de vakken en lesmanagement, terwijl de professionele competentie als leerkracht niet beoordeeld wordt. In het algemeen kan de huidige aanwervingsprocedure in het ambtenarenproces niet de meest vaardige leerkrachten selecteren – de nadruk ligt op nationalisme en algemene kennis in plaats van op didactiek en passie.

In het onderwijs is een “roeping” essentieel voor een leraar: een sterke motivatie om kennis over te dragen en het potentieel van studenten te ontwikkelen. Zonder deze roeping is het moeilijk om een goede leerkracht te zijn.

Geschreven door Leticia Cox, Vertaald door Shoshanah Gerstenbluth

Verwijzingen

https://ijble.com/index.php/journal/article/view/64/71

https://www.unicef.org/eap/media/9326/file/Sit An – Indonesia case study.pdf

https://www.unicef.org/indonesia/education-and-adolescents

https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/81594

https://jakartaglobe.id/news/poor-quality-of-education-casts-shadow-on-indonesias-future-job-market

Foto omslag door Husniati Salma via Unsplash

Educational Challenges in San Marino

The flag of San Marino, cropped

Written by Eliana Riggi

Background: COVID-19 pandemic impact on school systems around the world

The coronavirus disease, emerging in the first months of 2020, spread rapidly across countries, and it constituted an unprecedented challenge with which the entire world had to grapple. The pandemic had all-encompassing consequences for societies and states. Not only did it put a strain on national healthcare systems, but it also affected vital policy areas such as education.

Policies and frameworks were adapted to the new reality for national educational systems to be resilient. Governmentsdevised and implemented ad hoc measures to hamper the transmission of the virus and guarantee the right to education simultaneously. School closures soon became a standard practice among countries, and they peaked in April 2020, affecting over 1.6 billion learners worldwide.

To ensure educational continuity, states transitioned from in-person instruction towards distance teaching and learning, extensively using tools such as broadcast media (radio, TV), take-home material packages and online learning platforms. Due to the emergency context, the transition was swift in many cases, but it did require tailored and adequate support to teachers, students and families. Furthermore, quarantines and virus containment measures led to reformed learning assessment methods and high-stakes examinations.

When a lessening of COVID-19 allowed for school reopening, the Ministry of Education coordinated with the rest of government representatives to make that safe. By and large, schools began to reopen in September 2020. Despite this, countries decided on criteria governing future school closures.

Inevitably, the pandemic had adverse effects on learning opportunities and effectiveness. Not every student accessed remote learning because of child labour, connectivity gaps and gender inequality. Thereby, minimum learning losses were unavoidable. In an attempt to mitigate these losses, funds were provided to boost internet access and, at a later time, remedial programmes were introduced. Even after school reopening, an increase in dropout and disengagement rates was observed, especially for students belonging to low-income or rural households. [i]

Mental issues affecting learners:  a call to action

Therefore, it seems evident that returning to in-person instruction is not enough to make COVID-19 consequences disappear. What is more, school is not only about learning, but it is also where personal development takes place. Schooling helps children and youth forge their values, ideas, interests, social skills and career aspirations, to name but a few. For this reason, the well-being of learners is essential to safeguard their right to education.

Undoubtedly, the mental health of students, teachers, parents and caregivers has been impacted by the pandemic.  Not only did the pandemic cause mental health issues, but it also exacerbated those already present.

School closures, social isolation, health risks and the death of loved ones have had severe psychological implications on learners. Indeed, children and youth were deprived of the interpersonal dimension of everyday life and could only enjoy face-to-face relationships with family members unless they were infected.  A screen became the only way to communicate and to see faces without masks. [ii] Moreover, the stress linked to economic instability and educational disruptions fostered a feeling of uncertainty about studies, aspirations, and school-to-work transition, creating the perception of a hopeless future. [iii]   

Critically, students were subjected to pandemic restrictions, but they did not engage in the decision-making processes. Even though they should have had a say in education policies, they could not easily make their voice heard, undermining their self-confidence. [iv]  

Extensive literature underlines the need to address learners’ mental issues and advocates the provision of support services to students. Since lockdowns, governments, especially in high-income countries, have acted by setting up hotlines, recruiting counsellors or launching projects facilitating students sharing feelings and concerns. [v]

As learning and personal development are strongly intertwined, the Council of Europe has promoted the historical study of crises in schools to help students understand how their peers reacted and felt in the past. Thus, studying history may create a sense of unity and empathy. [vi]

Education responses to the pandemic-resulted predicament in San Marino

The Republic of San Marino executed its plan to cope with the pandemic first and foremost by means of nationwide school closures from 23 February to 10 June 2020, but the closures continued until the end of August because of the usual summer academic break. [vii] In view of the unfolding pandemic, a mixed approach between in-person instruction and remote learning was adopted. Then, there were only partial school closures during the academic year 2020/2021. To sum up, from March 2020 to August 2021, 4,170 learners were affected by school closures, and most of them belonged to lower- and upper-secondary education levels.

As a result of school closures, authorities opted for a distance learning strategy employing online learning platforms for all education levels. Remote learning required the government to provide teachers with instructions on remote teaching, pedagogy workshops, ICT tools and free connectivity while enabling them to teach from school premises. The coverage of online learning platforms was crucial to safeguard the right to education and educational continuity for all learners. Hence, the distance learning strategy embraced policies that did pay attention to students with disabilities. The latter could attend courses on school premises and were supported with tailored materials. For instance, sign language was included in online learning programmes. Schools committed to offering vulnerable households internet subscriptions and devices at subsidised or zero costs to foster students’ access to connectivity.

A monitoring process was facilitated by observing students’ participation in online classes, their scheduled delivery of assignments, and their participation in written and oral tests. It is confirmed that more than 75 % of students attended distance learning during school closures. More importantly, the collaboration and mutual support between schools and families was enhanced through follow-up practices such as phone calls, instant messaging, emailing, videoconferencing and running household surveys on remote learning strategies.

As regards high-stake examinations for the secondary level, they were not cancelled or postponed, but they took place only via online-based oral tests, and they assessed reduced curriculum content.

As the academic year 2019/2020 was profoundly impacted by the coronavirus disease, the school calendar for the subsequent academic year 2020/2021 was adjusted with the start date on 1 September 2020, two weeks ahead of the previous schedule. The government preferred not to extend the duration of classes or the content of curricula. Learning assessments were organised at the classroom level to address learning losses, and authorities decided to launch remedial programmes in primary- and secondary-level schools as of September 2020.

After school reopening, students’ participation was monitored, and it showed that 100 % of students had attended school since September 2020, except for upper-secondary level schools where attendance share was more than 75% but not 100%. The return to in-person instruction was combined with health and hygiene precautionary measures. In the first place, hand-washing practice, using masks, temperature checks, equipment disinfection and the tracking of COVID-19-infected or exposed people were furthered and supervised by school committees. Moreover, adjustments to school and classroom physical arrangements, reducing or suspending extra-curricular activities, and combining remote and in-person learning were the most widely enforced measures. Teaching in schools’ outdoor places was encouraged in pre-primary and primary schools, whereas the progressive return of students divided into age-based cohorts concerned only pre-primary schools. Finally, classroom attendance scheduled in shifts was promoted exclusively in lower- and upper-secondary schools.

Since the pandemic had far-reaching consequences on education, the Republic of San Marino could rely on additional funds to recruit non-teaching safety personnel in all schools and teachers in pre-primary and primary schools in the academic year 2020/2021. However, only reallocations within the ordinary or even reduced education budget allowed the government to increase the education staff compensation, student loans and scholarships.

In addition to the policies implemented for school reopening, the government determined coronavirus national prevalence rates as the criterion for closing schools again. [viii]

The well-being of San Marino students: concerns and efforts

In San Marino’s statement, delivered during the 2022 Transforming Education Summit, the then-heads of State, the Captains Regent of the Republic of San Marino, Mr Oscar Mina II and Mr Paolo Rondelli I, recognised the two main functions of education: learning and personal development. In this respect, they declared the state’s willingness to continue abiding by the principles of equality and inclusiveness. Concerning COVID-19, they emphasise the pandemic consequences on students’ mental health and the educational system’s commitment to standing up to those. [ix]

Accordingly, San Marino authorities have been putting great effort into supporting students’ psychological well-being so far. During nationwide school closures, online counselling and teacher assistants lent learners a hand in facing pandemic hard times. In 2021, counselling points were arranged in secondary schools and the Centro di formazione professionale (vocational training centre).

The provision of assistance soon revealed the worrisome framework compounded by the pandemic. During the academic years 2020/2021 and 2021/2022, more than 130 students turned to the counselling services. Issues such as fear, anxiety, problematic anger management, eating and mood disorders, panic attacks, bullying and self-harm were detected. In some cases, they led to truancy and dropout. [x] As well, manifold addictions rose during the pandemic and after. Among them, social media, drug, and video game addictions have been widespread.The reason why COVID-19 has aggravated addictions lies in the fact that vulnerabilities consolidated while learners were suffering isolation. Consequently, youth specifically deemed social media, drugs or video games as an escape hatch from the gloomy reality. [xi]

Along with counselling services in secondary schools, authorities approved several projects for caring for children in pre-primary and primary schools. Both in 2021 and 2022, artists, teachers and doctors engaged together in school projects. The Giornata degli abbracci (Hugs Day) was outstanding among the initiatives. Considering that the pandemic had altered children’s emotional balance, the Giornata degli abbracci, which took place on 9 June 2022, aimed at restoring mutual trust, solidarity and good mood. [xii]  

In December 2022, the government went one step further. After that, citizens called for the direct democracy mechanism Istanza d’ Arengo, a new professional figure, was established. Doctor Rosita Guidi has been appointed as a school psychologist. The school psychologist services are aimed at students of every level, from pre-primary to secondary schools and the vocational training centre. Dr Rosita Guidi can handle counselling requests from students, parents/caregivers, teachers and school committees. If the request concerns a minor, parents’ consent is compulsory.

The school psychologist comes to the aid of learners, teachers and families to promote the well-being of children and youth. When necessary, the undertaking of therapy paths may be suggested. [[xiii]] Although the school psychologist can easily be contacted (directly and via email), schools endorse additional methods due to privacy considerations. For instance, lower-secondary school students can request by inserting a note filled with personal and contact information in a sealed box.

The psychological support service has been warmly welcomed, given that, from December 2022 to April 2023, 60 requests were sent. [xiv]   

With regard to students’ voice expression, San Marino has embarked on a renovation process planning to upgrade school curricula with interdisciplinarity, digital and citizenship competencies. The latter is meant to enhance the culture of peace, the education for sustainable development, human rights and gender education. Through this enrichment, students are on the right path to taking responsibility, raising their self-confidence and becoming active citizens in the democratic framework. [xv]

Conclusion

Two years after the pandemic outbreak, during the 2022 Transforming Education Summit, 57 % of governments stated the need to support the psycho-social well-being of students and teachers. Along the same line, international organisations and experts have incited states to invest steadily significant and adequate resources in supporting learners’ mental health. [xvi] Schools play a crucial role in this sensitive domain, and their role is all the more important if families do not notice psychological distress or underestimate it. San Marino has endeavoured to make the national educational system resilient to the pandemic, and its achievements have been relevant. Specifically, new counselling services have contributed to the country’s journey towards transformed education. It would be worthwhile to fund these services to a greater extent. Also, psychology training for all education staff has been proposed. [xvii] For all these reasons, even if San Marino’s educational transformation process is relatively recent, it is promising.

References:

[i] Soroptimist International (2021, March). Solidarity of NGOs facing the pandemic: educationhttps://www.soroptimistinternational.org/solidarity-of-ngos-facing-the-pandemic-education/ ; UNESCO, UNICEF, The World Bank (2020, October). What have we learnt? Overview of findings from a survey of ministries of education on national responses to COVID-19 https://data.unicef.org/resources/national-education-responses-to-covid19/#:~:text=Compiling%20data%20from%20surveys%20on,by%20teachers%20and%20were%20more; UNESCO, UNICEF, The World Bank and OECD (2021, June). What’s next? Lessons on Education Recovery: Findings from a Survey of Ministries of Education amid the COVID-19 Pandemic https://covid19.uis.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2021/07/National-Education-Responses-to-COVID-19-Report2_v3.pdf

[ii] Giannini, S. (2020, April). Prioritise health and well-being now and when schools reopen. UNESCO https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/prioritize-health-and-well-being-now-and-when-schools-reopen; World Health Organization (2022, June). The impact of COVID-19 on mental health cannot be made light of https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-mental-health-cannot-be-made-light-of

[iii] International Labour Organization, AIESEC, European Union, European Youth Forum, UN Major Group for Children and Youth, UN OHCHR (2020, August). Youth & COVID-19: Impacts on jobs, education, rights and mental well-being https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_753026.pdf 

[iv] UNESCO, Council of Europe (2021, November). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on student voice, Findings and recommendations https://rm.coe.int/finalpublication-theimpact-of-covid19-on-student-voice/1680a42e52

[v] UNESCO (2021, March). One year into COVID: Prioritising education recovery to avoid a generational catastrophe, Report of UNESCO Online Conference https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000376984 ; UNESCO, Council of Europe (2021, November). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on student voice, Findings and recommendations https://rm.coe.int/finalpublication-theimpact-of-covid19-on-student-voice/1680a42e52; UNESCO, UNICEF, The World Bank and OECD (2021, June). What’s next? Lessons on Education Recovery: Findings from a Survey of Ministries of Education amid the COVID-19 Pandemic https://covid19.uis.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2021/07/National-Education-Responses-to-COVID-19-Report2_v3.pdf 

[[vi]] Council of Europe (2020, October). Making the right to education a reality in times of COVID-19, A Roadmap for Action on the Council of Europe education response to COVID-19 https://rm.coe.int/making-the-right-to-education-a-reality-in-times-of-covid-19-a-roadmap/16809fee7b

[vii] Pre-primary school closures lasted until 7 June 2020, and the academic year 2019/2020 was extended just for them. School closures-related data can be visualised in interactive maps in the UNESCO Web Archive at the following address: https://webarchive.unesco.org/web/20220625033513/https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse#durationschoolclosures

[viii] The information given in this section is contained in San Marino’s responses to the first and third rounds of the four-round Surveyon national Education Responses to COVID-19 School Closures. The first and third rounds of the survey were conducted respectively from May to June 2020 and from February to April 2021. The reader may find more detailed information about the four-round Surveyon national Education Responses to COVID-19 School Closures at the following address: https://tcg.uis.unesco.org/survey-on-national-education-responses-to-covid-19-school-closures/

[ix] San Marino (2022, September). National Declaration of Commitment at the 2022 Transforming Education Summit https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/2022/09/san_marino-commitment-statement-french-english-v.pdf . More about governments’ declarations of commitment at the 2022 Transforming Education Summit can be read at the following address: https://www.un.org/en/transforming-education-summit/member-states-statements

[x] Salvatori, L. (2022, April). Disagio giovanile: con la pandemia, quasi quadruplicati i nuovi casi. San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/politica-c2/disagio-giovanile-con-la-pandemia-quasi-quadruplicati-i-nuovi-casi-a222522

[xi] Camparsi, M. L. (2023, February). Disagio giovanile e dipendenze preadolescenziali: una giornata di formazione a San Marino. San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/attualita-c4/disagio-giovanile-e-dipendenze-preadolescenziali-una-giornata-di-formazione-a-san-marino-a236227

[xii] Giornata degli Abbracci: importante momento di condivisione per la fine della scuola. (2022, June). San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/attualita-c4/giornata-degli-abbracci-importante-momento-di-condivisione-per-la-fine-della-scuola-a224659

[xiii] More details concerning the school psychologist services are available in the national education portal called Portale dell’ Educazione della Repubblica di San Marino at the following address: http://www.media.educazione.sm/on-line/home-portale-scuole-medie/la-scuola/spazio-dascolto.html

[xiv] Giuccioli, A. (2023, April). Lo psicologo entra a scuola in aiuto di giovani e famiglie. In tre mesi oltre 60 richieste. San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/attualita-c4/lo-psicologo-entra-a-scuola-in-aiuto-di-giovani-e-famiglie-in-tre-mesi-oltre-60-richieste-a238898

[xv] San Marino (2022, September). National Declaration of Commitment at the 2022 Transforming Education Summit https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/2022/09/san_marino-commitment-statement-french-english-v.pdf

[xvi] Giannini, S. (2020, April). Prioritise health and well-being now and when schools reopen. UNESCO https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/prioritize-health-and-well-being-now-and-when-schools-reopen; World Health Organization (2022, June). The impact of COVID-19 on mental health cannot be made light of https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-mental-health-cannot-be-made-light-of ; United Nations (2023, January). Report on the 2022 Transforming Education Summit https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/report_on_the_2022_transforming_education_summit.pdf  ; World Health Organization (2022, March). Young people leading the way to a brighter post-COVID worldhttps://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/young-people-leading-the-way-to-a-brighter-post-covid-world

[xvii] Camparsi, M. L. (2023, February). Disagio giovanile e dipendenze preadolescenziali: una giornata di formazione a San Marino. San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/attualita-c4/disagio-giovanile-e-dipendenze-preadolescenziali-una-giornata-di-formazione-a-san-marino-a236227

Educational challenges in Nicaragua

Written by Agnes Amaral

Nicaragua is a Central American country that the Spanish colonised in the 16th century. Its independence began at the beginning of the 19th century, with a split between groups that defended monarchical ideals and groups that defended independence. For a time, the country became part of the provinces of Central America, and only in 1838 did it become a republic. Understanding this process of late independence is relevant to understanding the country’s politics and how these relations affect education.

There is an intense process of political rivalry between liberal and conservative groups, which has led to civil war and fostered close relations with US politicians. As a result of these close ties, Nicaragua suffered a series of American interventions aimed at protecting its interests in the region. These interventions led to another civil war, starting in 1926. These conflicts occurred between liberals and conservatives, with various political and local consequences for the population.

Another historical event that has led to analysis of the country’s current situation was the Sandinista insurrection of 1972. These revolutions sought to end a period of dictatorship that had been in place since 1936. This movement was one of the first to align two strands: liberation Christianity and Marxism. Christians played an important role as allies of the revolutionaries in this historic moment.

There are undoubtedly many other nuances and other relevant moments in Nicaragua’s history, but these specific moments indicate the attacks on students that have been taking place recently, especially on university students.

Attack on human rights

In 2018, the Nicaraguan Association for Human Rights (ANPDH) reported the deaths of more than 280 people and more than 2,000 injured due to President Daniel Ortega’s reaction to protesters. The protests were against a reduction in budget pressure. In addition, several university students took to the streets to demand more assertive government action on other issues, such as forest fires. It can be said that this year was crucial for human rights in Nicaragua, especially in terms of education, since students were responsible for demanding fairer actions for the country’s population.

Photo by Markus Spiske on Unsplash

The reactions of the government and government-backed groups against the protesters shocked the country and the world, even causing threats to the Nicaraguan Association for Human Rights (ANPDH), which closed its office in the country due to harassment and death threats over the phone.

Human rights activists become targets of a backlash against protests. Not only students have suffered from this political situation of curtailment of rights, but also doctors and health workers have reported constant attacks and threats.

Since then, it has been possible to observe the role of President Daniel Ortega’s government and how it reacts to social demands. Mainly by attacking students who participated in protests to guarantee human rights.

Attack on universities

In 2022, the struggle of university students continues. Daniel Ortega’s government has instituted reforms to control the country’s education system better. As an example of these oppressive attitudes, the Central American University (UCA) announced that classes and administrative activities had been suspended in August 2022. The UCA’s assets and financial accounts were to be transferred to the government.

Groups from the Jesuit order and students claimed that Daniel Ortega’s government declared the UCA a centre of terrorism against the government. Therefore, it should be held responsible for the university’s accounts. The UN issued a statement reaffirming the impact of this authoritarian change on the right to education. Dictatorial attitudes characterise these actions aimed at the university in an attempt to curtail critical thinking and the right to demand social policies for all.

Photo by Redd F on Unsplash

The question arises regarding the right to education, especially an education that provides free and critical thinking. A variety of theorists and researchers have reinforced the event as dictatorial since not even the university with the highest level of teaching quality in the country was unscathed by government oppression.

The process of revoking these universities, which began with the repressions in 2018, has been accentuated. In 2022, private universities were legally placed as hotbeds of opposition to the government. Several foreign universities with campuses in Nicaragua were closed because they did not follow the authorities of the government in question. The complexity of the issue can be seen in the use of the legal apparatus to silence the voices of students and university professors.

Conclusion

The news from 2023 shows that this event is not over. Daniel Ortega’s government continues to attack university institutions in retaliation for the 2018 protests. Specific attacks on private centres and religious institutions demonstrate a curtailment of the right to education in Nicaragua.

Academics and students are silenced at every turn because there is an attempt to strengthen power and silence political opponents. This is not the first government to try to take away the right to a free and critical education, which shows human rights defenders the need for a continuous struggle to guarantee this right in all spaces. The government’s regulation is mainly aimed at leading institutions in social studies. Researchers are banned from accessing public reports and statistics to carry out their work. It can be said that there has been a definitive attack on education in Nicaragua in recent years.

Many scholars report a totalitarian tendency on the part of the government. The legal apparatus and the force of the state are being used to curtail the right to education, critical thinking, and protests to guarantee quality of life. It is essential to pay attention to this situation since critics and students report disproportionate oppression. The use of militias has been intensive, and the threats to the voices of this oppression have been silenced.

International reactions can be observed, but the COVID-19 pandemic has changed the perception of the events suffered by Nicaragua students, academics, and human rights defenders. It is necessary to emphasise and discuss what can be done to guarantee human rights, especially critical and quality education, in Nicaragua.

References
  1. Álvarez, M. (2023, May 9). Transforming rural education in Nicaragua: “Rural and Inclusive Digital Education” project advances towards educational equity. UNESCO. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/transforming-rural-education-nicaragua-rural-and-inclusive-digital-education-project-advances
  1. BBC News. (2018, August 6). Nicaraguan human rights group closes offices after threats. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-45082607
  1. Confidencial, R. (2023, September 17). Nicaragua’s state universities impose the “Ortega truth.” Confidencial. https://confidencial.digital/english/nicaraguas-state-universities-impose-the-ortega-truth/
  1. Jazeera, A. (2018a, July 17). Nicaragua unrest: What you should know. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/7/17/nicaragua-unrest-what-you-should-know
  1. Jazeera, A. (2018b, July 17). Nicaragua unrest: What you should know. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/7/17/nicaragua-unrest-what-you-should-know
  1. Jazeera, A. (2023, August 17). Nicaragua seizes Catholic university accused of being ‘centre of terrorism.’ Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/17/nicaragua-seizes-catholic-university-accused-of-being-centre-of-terrorism
  1. Selser, G. (2023, September 12). UN says Nicaragua’s human rights violations and persecution of dissidents are on the rise | AP News. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/nicaragua-human-rights-united-nations-04dd198410aa10760a778166db26a4bf
  2. Seizure of university a blow to science – Researchers. (n.d.). University World News. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20230830114724305

Educational Challenges in Djibouti

Written by Priscilla Thindwa

Education is a human right, not a privilege. This means education is legally guaranteed for all human beings without discrimination and for this reason, states are obliged to “protect, respect, and fulfil the right to education”.i In instances where states violate or deprive their citizens of the right to education, they are expected to be held accountable for such violations.

As a member of the United Nations (UN) and the African Union (AU), the Republic of Djibouti, has ratified several human rights conventions. Among these is the Universal Declaration on Human Rights which was adopted in 1948. As proclaimed in Article 26, everyone has the right to education. As signatory, Djibouti has made legally binding international commitments to adhere to the standards including protecting and respecting the right to education. In addition to its obligations through international commitments, the Constitution of Djibouti emphasises the right to education as an essential element for growth and human development. Despite this emphasis, Djibouti has not been able to guarantee the right to education to everyone in the country. This article will address the challenges standing in the way of the right to education, but also highlight some good practices.

Djibouti’s Educational Landscape

As a former French colonial state, its education system is based on the French system with French and Arabic as instruction languages. Compulsory education runs for nine years: primary school lasts five years and middle school lasts four years.ii For primary school, enrolment rates were under the regional average in 2020. The enrolment rate of girls in the appropriate age group for primary school was 65 percent in comparison to the regional average of almost 80 percent. For boys, the enrolment rate was 68 percent in comparison to the regional average of 81 percent.iii In 2022, 42 percent of children in the primary school age were out of school.iv

Secondary school lasts three years and thereafter, students can attend skills training college (TVET) or the University of Djibouti for at least three years.v While for primary school Djibouti does not reach the regional average, the gross enrolment rate for secondary schooling exceeds the regional average. In 2022, an enrolment rate of 57 percent was reported. According to the Oxford Business Group, this is a huge improvement as in 2001, enrolment was only 16 percent.vi For tertiary education, Djibouti again does not catch up with the region: total enrolment is only 5 percent.vii

Despite the fact that Djibouti underperforms in primary and tertiary education on the regional level, the Oxford Business Group reports clear improvements. One improvement mentioned earlier are the enrolment rates in secondary school. In addition, while enrolment rates in primary school are still below the regional average, there has been great improvement over the last two decades. The number of girls not attending primary school fell from 42,620 in 2001 to 16,872 in 2021, while the number of boys fell from 39,088 to 15,284 over the same period. Another improvement in the student-teacher ratio from 34 students per teacher in 2008 to 29 in 2018.viii

Such improvements are partly owed to the the Education Action Programme 2017-19 (Plan d’Action de l’Education, PAE). Under this programme, several results were achieved including developing a preschool strategy and recognising second-chance education centres and mainstreaming of life skills and citizenship education. Another important aspect of the programme was the inclusion of refugee children into the national education system. Such developments have been important in working towards achieving quality and accessible education for all in Djibouti.ix

Source: Global Partnership for Education | Via Flickr

Challenges Associated with Education

One of the challenges has already been noted: many children remain out of school. Other challenges include inequitable access to education, low quality of education, low availability of learning materials, and disparities due to gender, geographic areas, and socio-economic status.

Inequitable Access to Education, Low Availability of Learning Materials and Lack of Schools

Three of the main challenges facing the education sector in Djibouti are the unequal access to education, low availability of learning materials, and the lack of schools. These challenges disproportionately affect children in rural areas, especially girls, migrants, refugees, disabled children, and children on the street.x According to a 2020 report by the Ministry of National Education and Vocational Training (MENFOP), an estimated 50.5 percent of students lived within 1 km of a school, meaning the other 49.5 percent lives further away. 3.3 percent resided further than 10 km from their nearest school. Disparities due to geographic areas and socio-economic status continue to hinder the progress in improving education systems in the country.xi

With regards to refugees, Djibouti hosted 31,000 refugees and asylum seekers at the beginning of 2022. This number remained stable in 2023.xii Because of this high number, providing education for refugee children is essential. For most refugee children, language was the main barrier for accessing education. To counter such barriers, the government has translated the national curriculum into English and Arabic and has trained teachers in local languages of Afar and Somali. Also, the government recognises education previously provided to refugee students in other countries which has made it easier for them to take the Djibouti Baccalaureate examination.xiii

Additionally, as a way of making education inclusive and accessible for all, the government has developed the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) sector whose main goal is to alleviate unemployment within the country. Such trainings economically empower those from disadvantaged households who cannot afford university costs to attain skills. This shows the government has taken steps to bridge access to education between the rich and poor.xiv

Low Quality of Education

Despite progress made in recent years, low quality of education remains a challenge for Djibouti. For instance, based on the grade 5 assessments conducted in 3 subjects (French, Mathematics and Arabic), the success rate for children at the end of 2017-2018 academic year was 71.8 percent. In 2016-2017, the ratio was pegged at 64 percent.xv In light of such lower quality of education, the government has been working collaboratively with agencies such as UNICEF in order to improve the quality of education in the country.

Gender Disparities

Similar to most African countries, the gaps between male and female students in school attendance is persistent. The number of girls’ school drop outs is usually higher than that of boys, and girls are in rural areas are particularly affected. In comparison to rural areas, urban areas show an increase in gender equity in primary, secondary and tertiary education.xvi

Djibouti is observed to have made progress: as noted before, there was a large increase in the number of girls attending primary school between 2001 and 2021. Even though gender inequality is still persistent, national policies and strategies promoting women’s rights and gender equality have contributed to changes in attitude towards girls’ education. Another intervention aiding progress is the revision of teaching and learning materials in which images defying traditional depiction of women and girls in society are now displayed.xvii On this note, the government of Djibouti has made some considerable progress in bridging the gender gap in access to education, albeit slow.

Source: Global Partnership for Education Via Flickr

The Covid-19 Pandemic

Similar to elsewhere, the COVID-19 pandemic had grave consequences for education. As a way to limit the spread of the virus, measures such as containment were put in place in most countries around the globe. Such measures restricted children and adolescents from going to school and any other public facilities, which exacerbated already existing inequities in many countries. In Djibouti, the government closed down schools in April 2020. All activities were suspended until August 2020.xviii

To ensure students continued to have access to their education, MENFOP developed a distance-learning programme for both rural and urban areas. This was done, for example, through televising and radio courses as well as providing the learning materials on internet platforms. Moreover, booklets and paper materials for rural communities and refugees were provided.xix Also, through funding from the World Bank, the government supported improvement in access to remote learning and provided electronic devices and internet connectivity to schools across the country.xx In addition, the programs focused on vulnerable students, including children living in remote areas, refugees, and girls.xxi

While the programme did not reach every students, it is considered successful: 86 percent of students had access to online learning, of which 45% were girls, 18% lived in remote areas and 5% were refugees. Also, many children returned to school after schools reopened. With support of UNICEF, a campaign was launched to engage the community and parents, leading to positive results. In addition, students who experienced high levels of learning loss were offered remedial programmes.xxii Thus, even though the COVID-19 pandemic posed as a challenge within the education sector, the government together with international organisations was able to alleviate the effects caused by creating alternative ways to accessing education.

Conclusion

As discussed above, different factors continue to hinder full enjoyment of the right to education by people living in Djibouti. Many children continue to not attend schools, and low access to educational institutions remains a problem. This is compounded by low quality of education and low availability of learning materials. Such challenges are exacerbated by inequitable access to education, as well as disparities due to gender, geographic areas, and socio-economic status.

Despite aforementioned challenges, the government of Djibouti undertakes efforts to increase access to and coverage of education, especially in rural areas and for refugees. Also, its improvement in reducing gender disparities should be commended. With regards to the Covid-19 pandemic, the government managed to mitigate the negative impacts of the pandemic by providing alternative learning avenues and equipment. The involvement of local communities and parents can be praised.

References
  • Donaher, M. (2023). USAID Djibouti’s Early Grade Reading Activity (DEGRA) Is Transforming Gender Norms in the Classroom and Beyond. Education Links. https://www.edu-links.org/learning/usaid-djiboutis-early-grade-reading-activity-degra-transforming-gender-norms-classroom-and#:~:text=While%20in%20urban%20areas%2C%20gender,to%20drop%20out%20of%20school.
  • Hamlaoui, Souad. (2021). Djibouti: An opportunity to transform education through enhanced sector dialogue during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Partnership Education.
  • https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/djibouti-opportunity-transform-education-through-enhanced-sector-dialogue-during-covid-19
  • Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why education in Djibouti is more accessible across the country.Oxford Business Group.
  • https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/djibouti/2023-report/health-education/greater-reach-progress-is-being-made-to-make-education-more-accessible-nationwide-in-both-rural-and-urban-areas-overview/
  • Reliefweb. (2023). Djbouti: Operational Update. Reliefweb. https://reliefweb.int/report/djibouti/djibouti-operational-update-october-2023#:~:text=The%20Republic%20of%20Djibouti%20remains,asylum%20seekers%20from%20neighboring%20countries.
  • Right to Education. (2023). Understanding Education as a Right. Right to Education.
  • https://www.right-to education.org/page/understanding-education-right
  • The World Bank. (2015). Djibouti Needs to Build and Expand on Achievements to Educate the Next Generation. The World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/02/04/djibouti-needs-to-build-and-expand-on-achievements-to-educate-the-next-generation
  • UNICEF Djibouti. (2019). Djibouti: Education Thematic Report. UNICEF. https://open.unicef.org/sites/transparency/files/2020-06/DJIBOUTI-TP4-2018.pdf
  • USAID. (N.d.). Djibouti: Education. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/education
  • USAID. (N.d.). Djibouti: Gender. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/gender
  • i Right to Education. (2023). Understanding Education as a Rights. Right to Education. https://www.right-to-education.org/page/understanding-education-
  • ii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group. https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/djibouti/2023-report/health-education/greater-reach-progress-is-being-made-to-make-education-more-accessible-nationwide-in-both-rural-and-urban-areas-overview/
  • iii USAID. (N.d.). Djibouti: Gender. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/gender
  • iv USAID. (N.d). Djibouti: Education. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/education
  • v Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country”. Oxford Business Group.
  • vi Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • vii USAID. (N.d.). “Djibouti: Education”. USAID.
  • viii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • ix Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • x UNICEF Djibouti. (2019). Djibouti: Education Thematic Report. UNICEF.
  • https://open.unicef.org/sites/transparency/files/2020-06/DJIBOUTI-TP4-2018.pdf
  • xi Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • xii Reliefweb. 2023. Djbouti: Operational Update. Reliefweb. https://reliefweb.int/report/djibouti/djibouti-operational-update-october-2023#:~:text=The%20Republic%20of%20Djibouti%20remains,asylum%20seekers%20from%20neighboring%20countries.
  • xiii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • xiv Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • xv UNICEF Djibouti. (2019). Djibouti: Education Thematic Report. UNICEF.
  • xvi M. Donaher. (2023). USAID Djibouti’s Early Grade Reading Activity (DEGRA) Is Transforming Gender Norms in the Classroom and Beyond. Education Links. https://www.edu-links.org/learning/usaid-djiboutis-early-grade-reading-activity-degra-transforming-gender-norms-classroom-and#:~:text=While%20in%20urban%20areas%2C%20gender,to%20drop%20out%20of%20school.
  • xvii M. Donaher. (2023). USAID Djibouti’s Early Grade Reading Activity (DEGRA) Is Transforming Gender
  • xviii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • xx Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • xxi Souad Hamlaoui. (2021). Djibouti: An opportunity to transform education through enhanced sector dialogue during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Partnership Education. https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/djibouti-opportunity-transform-education-through-enhanced-sector-dialogue-during-covid-19
  • xxii Souad Hamlaoui. (2021). Djibouti: An opportunity to transform education through enhanced sector dialogue during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Partnership Education.

Educational challenges in San Marino: COVID’s Impact

Written by Eliana Riggi

Background: COVID-19 pandemic impact on school systems around the world

The coronavirus, emerging in the first months of 2020, spread rapidly across countries, and it constituted an unprecedented challenge with which the entire world had to grapple. The pandemic had all-encompassing consequences for societies and states. Not only did it put a strain on national healthcare systems, but it also affected vital policy areas such as education.

Policies and frameworks were adapted to the new reality for national educational systems to be resilient. Governments devised and implemented ad hoc measures to hamper the transmission of the virus and guarantee the right to education simultaneously. School closures soon became a standard practice among countries, and they peaked in April 2020, affecting over 1.6 billion learners worldwide.

To ensure educational continuity, states transitioned from in-person instruction towards distance teaching and learning, extensively using tools such as broadcast media (radio, TV), take-home material packages and online learning platforms. Due to the emergency context, the transition was swift in many cases, but it did require tailored and adequate support to teachers, students and families. Furthermore, quarantines and virus containment measures led to reformed learning assessment methods and high-stakes examinations.

When a lessening of COVID-19 allowed for school reopening, the Ministry of Education coordinated with the rest of government representatives to make that safe. By and large, schools began to reopen in September 2020. Despite this, countries decided on criteria governing future school closures.

Inevitably, the pandemic had adverse effects on learning opportunities and effectiveness. Not every student accessed remote learning because of child labour, connectivity gaps and gender inequality. Thereby, minimum learning losses were unavoidable. In an attempt to mitigate these losses, funds were provided to boost internet access and, at a later time, remedial programmes were introduced. Even after school reopening, an increase in dropout and disengagement rates was observed, especially for students belonging to low-income or rural households. [[i]]

Mental issues affecting learners:  a call to action

Therefore, it seems evident that returning to in-person instruction is not enough to make COVID-19 consequences disappear. What is more, school is not only about learning, but it is also where personal development takes place. Schooling helps children and youth forge their values, ideas, interests, social skills and career aspirations, to name but a few. For this reason, the well-being of learners is essential to safeguard their right to education.

Undoubtedly, the mental health of students, teachers, parents and caregivers has been impacted by the pandemic.  Not only did the pandemic cause mental health issues, but it also exacerbated those already present.

School closures, social isolation, health risks and the death of loved ones have had severe psychological implications on learners. Indeed, children and youth were deprived of the interpersonal dimension of everyday life and could only enjoy face-to-face relationships with family members unless they were infected.  A screen became the only way to communicate and to see faces without masks. [[ii]] Moreover, the stress linked to economic instability and educational disruptions fostered a feeling of uncertainty about studies, aspirations, and school-to-work transition, creating the perception of a hopeless future. [[iii]]   

Critically, students were subjected to pandemic restrictions, but they did not engage in the decision-making processes. Even though they should have had a say in education policies, they could not easily make their voice heard, undermining their self-confidence. [[iv]]  

Extensive literature underlines the need to address learners’ mental issues and advocates the provision of support services to students. Since lockdowns, governments, especially in high-income countries, have acted by setting up hotlines, recruiting counsellors or launching projects facilitating students sharing feelings and concerns. [[v]]

As learning and personal development are strongly intertwined, the Council of Europe has promoted the historical study of crises in schools to help students understand how their peers reacted and felt in the past. Thus, studying history may create a sense of unity and empathy. [[vi]]

In the drawing, we read “Facciamoci contagiare… dai buoni sentimenti!” (Let good feelings contaminate us!). Lower-secondary school students made this and many more drawings during school closures. Picture by Scuola Media della Repubblica di San Marino via Facebook.

Education responses to the pandemic-resulted predicament in San Marino

The Republic of San Marino executed its plan to cope with the pandemic first and foremost by means of nationwide school closures from 23 February to 10 June 2020, but the closures continued until the end of August because of the usual summer academic break. [[vii]] In view of the unfolding pandemic, a mixed approach between in-person instruction and remote learning was adopted. Then, there were only partial school closures during the academic year 2020/2021. To sum up, from March 2020 to August 2021, 4,170 learners were affected by school closures, and most of them belonged to lower- and upper-secondary education levels.

As a result of school closures, authorities opted for a distance learning strategy employing online learning platforms for all education levels. Remote learning required the government to provide teachers with instructions on remote teaching, pedagogy workshops, ICT tools and free connectivity while enabling them to teach from school premises. The coverage of online learning platforms was crucial to safeguard the right to education and educational continuity for all learners. Hence, the distance learning strategy embraced policies that did pay attention to students with disabilities. The latter could attend courses on school premises and were supported with tailored materials. For instance, sign language was included in online learning programmes. Schools committed to offering vulnerable households internet subscriptions and devices at subsidised or zero costs to foster students’ access to connectivity.

A monitoring process was facilitated by observing students’ participation in online classes, their scheduled delivery of assignments, and their participation in written and oral tests. It is confirmed that more than 75 % of students attended distance learning during school closures. More importantly, the collaboration and mutual support between schools and families was enhanced through follow-up practices such as phone calls, instant messaging, emailing, videoconferencing and running household surveys on remote learning strategies.

As regards high-stake examinations for the secondary level, they were not cancelled or postponed, but they took place only via online-based oral tests, and they assessed reduced curriculum content.

As the academic year 2019/2020 was profoundly impacted by the coronavirus disease, the school calendar for the subsequent academic year 2020/2021 was adjusted with the start date on 1 September 2020, two weeks ahead of the previous schedule. The government preferred not to extend the duration of classes or the content of curricula. Learning assessments were organised at the classroom level to address learning losses, and authorities decided to launch remedial programmes in primary- and secondary-level schools as of September 2020.

After school reopening, students’ participation was monitored, and it showed that 100 % of students had attended school since September 2020, except for upper-secondary level schools where attendance share was more than 75% but not 100%. The return to in-person instruction was combined with health and hygiene precautionary measures. In the first place, hand-washing practice, using masks, temperature checks, equipment disinfection and the tracking of COVID-19-infected or exposed people were furthered and supervised by school committees. Moreover, adjustments to school and classroom physical arrangements, reducing or suspending extra-curricular activities, and combining remote and in-person learning were the most widely enforced measures. Teaching in schools’ outdoor places was encouraged in pre-primary and primary schools, whereas the progressive return of students divided into age-based cohorts concerned only pre-primary schools. Finally, classroom attendance scheduled in shifts was promoted exclusively in lower- and upper-secondary schools.

Since the pandemic had far-reaching consequences on education, the Republic of San Marino could rely on additional funds to recruit non-teaching safety personnel in all schools and teachers in pre-primary and primary schools in the academic year 2020/2021. However, only reallocations within the ordinary or even reduced education budget allowed the government to increase the education staff compensation, student loans and scholarships.

In addition to the policies implemented for school reopening, the government determined coronavirus national prevalence rates as the criterion for closing schools again. [[viii]]

The well-being of San Marino students: concerns and efforts

In San Marino’s statement, delivered during the 2022 Transforming Education Summit, the then-heads of State, the Captains Regent of the Republic of San Marino, Mr Oscar Mina II and Mr Paolo Rondelli I, recognised the two main functions of education: learning and personal development. In this respect, they declared the state’s willingness to continue abiding by the principles of equality and inclusiveness. Concerning COVID-19, they emphasise the pandemic consequences on students’ mental health and the educational system’s commitment to standing up to those. [[ix]]

Accordingly, San Marino authorities have been putting great effort into supporting students’ psychological well-being so far. During nationwide school closures, online counselling and teacher assistants lent learners a hand in facing pandemic hard times. In 2021, counselling points were arranged in secondary schools and the Centro di formazione professionale (vocational training centre).

The provision of assistance soon revealed the worrisome framework compounded by the pandemic. During the academic years 2020/2021 and 2021/2022, more than 130 students turned to the counselling services. Issues such as fear, anxiety, problematic anger management, eating and mood disorders, panic attacks, bullying and self-harm were detected. In some cases, they led to truancy and dropout. [[x]] As well, manifold addictions rose during the pandemic and after. Among them, social media, drug, and video game addictions have been widespread.The reason why COVID-19 has aggravated addictions lies in the fact that vulnerabilities consolidated while learners were suffering isolation. Consequently, youth specifically deemed social media, drugs or video games as an escape hatch from the gloomy reality. [[xi]]

Along with counselling services in secondary schools, authorities approved several projects for caring for children in pre-primary and primary schools. Both in 2021 and 2022, artists, teachers and doctors engaged together in school projects. The Giornata degli abbracci (Hugs Day) was outstanding among the initiatives. Considering that the pandemic had altered children’s emotional balance, the Giornata degli abbracci, which took place on 9 June 2022, aimed at restoring mutual trust, solidarity and good mood. [[xii]]  

In December 2022, the government went one step further. After that, citizens called for the direct democracy mechanism Istanza d’ Arengo, a new professional figure, was established. Doctor Rosita Guidi has been appointed as a school psychologist. The school psychologist services are aimed at students of every level, from pre-primary to secondary schools and the vocational training centre. Dr Rosita Guidi can handle counselling requests from students, parents/caregivers, teachers and school committees. If the request concerns a minor, parents’ consent is compulsory.

The school psychologist comes to the aid of learners, teachers and families to promote the well-being of children and youth. When necessary, the undertaking of therapy paths may be suggested. [[xiii]] Although the school psychologist can easily be contacted (directly and via email), schools endorse additional methods due to privacy considerations. For instance, lower-secondary school students can request by inserting a note filled with personal and contact information in a sealed box.

The psychological support service has been warmly welcomed, given that, from December 2022 to April 2023, 60 requests were sent. [[xiv]]   

With regard to students’ voice expression, San Marino has embarked on a renovation process planning to upgrade school curricula with interdisciplinarity, digital and citizenship competencies. The latter is meant to enhance the culture of peace, the education for sustainable development, human rights and gender education. Through this enrichment, students are on the right path to taking responsibility, raising their self-confidence and becoming active citizens in the democratic framework. [[xv]]

Conclusion

Two years after the pandemic outbreak, during the 2022 Transforming Education Summit, 57 % of governments stated the need to support the psycho-social well-being of students and teachers. Along the same line, international organisations and experts have incited states to invest steadily significant and adequate resources in supporting learners’ mental health. [[xvi]] Schools play a crucial role in this sensitive domain, and their role is all the more important if families do not notice psychological distress or underestimate it. San Marino has endeavoured to make the national educational system resilient to the pandemic, and its achievements have been relevant. Specifically, new counselling services have contributed to the country’s journey towards transformed education. It would be worthwhile to fund these services to a greater extent. Also, psychology training for all education staff has been proposed. [[xvii]] For all these reasons, even if San Marino’s educational transformation process is relatively recent, it is promising.

Cover Image via Wikimedia Commons

References:

[[i]] Soroptimist International (2021, March). Solidarity of NGOs facing the pandemic: educationhttps://www.soroptimistinternational.org/solidarity-of-ngos-facing-the-pandemic-education/ ; UNESCO, UNICEF, The World Bank (2020, October). What have we learnt? Overview of findings from a survey of ministries of education on national responses to COVID-19 https://data.unicef.org/resources/national-education-responses-to-covid19/#:~:text=Compiling%20data%20from%20surveys%20on,by%20teachers%20and%20were%20more; UNESCO, UNICEF, The World Bank and OECD (2021, June). What’s next? Lessons on Education Recovery: Findings from a Survey of Ministries of Education amid the COVID-19 Pandemic https://covid19.uis.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2021/07/National-Education-Responses-to-COVID-19-Report2_v3.pdf

[[ii]] Giannini, S. (2020, April). Prioritise health and well-being now and when schools reopen. UNESCO https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/prioritize-health-and-well-being-now-and-when-schools-reopen; World Health Organization (2022, June). The impact of COVID-19 on mental health cannot be made light of https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-mental-health-cannot-be-made-light-of

[[iii]] International Labour Organization, AIESEC, European Union, European Youth Forum, UN Major Group for Children and Youth, UN OHCHR (2020, August). Youth & COVID-19: Impacts on jobs, education, rights and mental well-being https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_753026.pdf 

[[iv]] UNESCO, Council of Europe (2021, November). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on student voice, Findings and recommendations https://rm.coe.int/finalpublication-theimpact-of-covid19-on-student-voice/1680a42e52

[[v]] UNESCO (2021, March). One year into COVID: Prioritising education recovery to avoid a generational catastrophe, Report of UNESCO Online Conference https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000376984 ; UNESCO, Council of Europe (2021, November). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on student voice, Findings and recommendations https://rm.coe.int/finalpublication-theimpact-of-covid19-on-student-voice/1680a42e52; UNESCO, UNICEF, The World Bank and OECD (2021, June). What’s next? Lessons on Education Recovery: Findings from a Survey of Ministries of Education amid the COVID-19 Pandemic https://covid19.uis.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2021/07/National-Education-Responses-to-COVID-19-Report2_v3.pdf 

[[vi]] Council of Europe (2020, October). Making the right to education a reality in times of COVID-19, A Roadmap for Action on the Council of Europe education response to COVID-19 https://rm.coe.int/making-the-right-to-education-a-reality-in-times-of-covid-19-a-roadmap/16809fee7b

[[vii]] Pre-primary school closures lasted until 7 June 2020, and the academic year 2019/2020 was extended just for them. School closures-related data can be visualised in interactive maps in the UNESCO Web Archive at the following address: https://webarchive.unesco.org/web/20220625033513/https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse#durationschoolclosures

[[viii]] The information given in this section is contained in San Marino’s responses to the first and third rounds of the four-round Surveyon national Education Responses to COVID-19 School Closures. The first and third rounds of the survey were conducted respectively from May to June 2020 and from February to April 2021. The reader may find more detailed information about the four-round Surveyon national Education Responses to COVID-19 School Closures at the following address: https://tcg.uis.unesco.org/survey-on-national-education-responses-to-covid-19-school-closures/

[[ix]] San Marino (2022, September). National Declaration of Commitment at the 2022 Transforming Education Summit https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/2022/09/san_marino-commitment-statement-french-english-v.pdf . More about governments’ declarations of commitment at the 2022 Transforming Education Summit can be read at the following address: https://www.un.org/en/transforming-education-summit/member-states-statements

[[x]] Salvatori, L. (2022, April). Disagio giovanile: con la pandemia, quasi quadruplicati i nuovi casi. San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/politica-c2/disagio-giovanile-con-la-pandemia-quasi-quadruplicati-i-nuovi-casi-a222522

[[xi]] Camparsi, M. L. (2023, February). Disagio giovanile e dipendenze preadolescenziali: una giornata di formazione a San Marino. San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/attualita-c4/disagio-giovanile-e-dipendenze-preadolescenziali-una-giornata-di-formazione-a-san-marino-a236227

[[xii]] Giornata degli Abbracci: importante momento di condivisione per la fine della scuola. (2022, June). San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/attualita-c4/giornata-degli-abbracci-importante-momento-di-condivisione-per-la-fine-della-scuola-a224659

[[xiii]] More details concerning the school psychologist services are available in the national education portal called Portale dell’ Educazione della Repubblica di San Marino at the following address: http://www.media.educazione.sm/on-line/home-portale-scuole-medie/la-scuola/spazio-dascolto.html

[[xiv]] Giuccioli, A. (2023, April). Lo psicologo entra a scuola in aiuto di giovani e famiglie. In tre mesi oltre 60 richieste. San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/attualita-c4/lo-psicologo-entra-a-scuola-in-aiuto-di-giovani-e-famiglie-in-tre-mesi-oltre-60-richieste-a238898

[[xv]] San Marino (2022, September). National Declaration of Commitment at the 2022 Transforming Education Summit https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/2022/09/san_marino-commitment-statement-french-english-v.pdf

[[xvi]] Giannini, S. (2020, April). Prioritise health and well-being now and when schools reopen. UNESCO https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/prioritize-health-and-well-being-now-and-when-schools-reopen; World Health Organization (2022, June). The impact of COVID-19 on mental health cannot be made light of https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-mental-health-cannot-be-made-light-of ; United Nations (2023, January). Report on the 2022 Transforming Education Summit https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/report_on_the_2022_transforming_education_summit.pdf  ; World Health Organization (2022, March). Young people leading the way to a brighter post-COVID worldhttps://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/young-people-leading-the-way-to-a-brighter-post-covid-world

[[xvii]] Camparsi, M. L. (2023, February). Disagio giovanile e dipendenze preadolescenziali: una giornata di formazione a San Marino. San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/attualita-c4/disagio-giovanile-e-dipendenze-preadolescenziali-una-giornata-di-formazione-a-san-marino-a236227

Challenges Facing the Education System in Senegal

Written by Ruth Lakcia

Education is a fundamental right for all humans around the globe. Regardless of one’s economic or social status,  they should be able to have access to Education. Even though this seems obvious and like common knowledge, it is not the reality for many Senegalese.

Senegal’s history of investing in education and engaging stakeholders in sector dialogue marks the government’s commitment to building a strong education system. Based on the 2019 PASEC assessment, many Senegalese students acquire basic competencies by the end of primary education, but 25% lack minimum proficiency in reading and 35% in math. Significant socioeconomic, rural-urban and regional disparities call for a more equitable and inclusive education system. While minimal learning differences are observed among girls and boys at the primary level, gender disparities emerge in secondary education, with more girls dropping out of school than boys.

Lack of enough qualified teachers

The education system in Senegal faces many challenges, such as a lack of qualified teachers, inadequate equipment and infrastructure, low-quality teaching and assessment, social inequalities and regional disparities. The government is trying to reform and modernise the education sector through various programs and partnerships with international organisations such as UNESCO or UNICEF.

Household poverty in Senegal still has work to do, with only a little over. Educational marginalisation has become a burning issue in Senegal, one of the poorest countries on the planet. About 34% of people in Senegal live on less than US $ 1.25 per day, with an average per capita income of $121 per month (Ibrahima, 2014). The results of the Harmonized Survey on Household Living Conditions (2018/2019) show that the incidence of individual poverty in Senegal is 37.8%. The country is still lagging behind in education. A large part of the population does not have easy access to education and remains marginalised from formal education, with an enrollment rate of 86.4% (ANSD, 2020). Many factors contribute to the exclusion of many young people from the education system, including gender and ICT. Furthermore, languages, particularly the English language, play a role in educational marginalisation in Senegal. What comes next is a brief introduction to the roles of gender, ICT and English in promoting or reducing educational marginalisation in Senegal. 17% gross preschool enrollment rate, but more importantly, dramatically improving quality.

Repetition and dropout in primary school

The overall financial cost of repetition and dropout in Senegal is on an upward trend due to a higher rate of both repetition and dropout. Over the 2012-2015 period, repetition and dropouts represented 13.72% of the expenses incurred by the government. This phenomenon can be explained by several factors, one of which is limited access to quality preschool education.  Senegal still has work to do, with only a little over 17% gross preschool enrollment rate, but more importantly, it needs to improve the quality of education. 

Impact of Covid-19

The pandemic caused by the SARS Covid-19 came to monitor investments made not only in the health sector but also in education and, above all, in the higher education subsystem. The pandemic led governments to close university campuses and suspend face-to-face classes for a considerable period to prevent the virus contamination from spreading. Some countries with the distance learning modality in their school curricula were forced to make it a strategy, intensifying them with the aim of reducing the pedagogical damage that was felt due to the COVID-19 pandemic.In Senegal, the COVID-19 pandemic and national school closures temporarily disrupted the education of 3.5 million learners and the 1.5 million children already out of school, and the dropout rate doubled.

Gender inequality in school

Despite the existence of government programmes- like free public school education until age 16 and the Girls’ Education Support Project, which provides school uniforms- the cost of schooling is still an obstacle for many families. They have to pay for learning materials and transport to school.

We also found a preference to educate boys over girls. In households with limited finances, boys are more likely to be sent to school even if girls would like to go.

Deep-seated cultural beliefs and practices – such as female genital mutilation, forced child marriages and early pregnancies – also prevent some girls from making progress in school. They, therefore, lag in education and wellbeing.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Senegal’s government, therefore, is responsible for extending better social services in schools and hospitals to facilitate development in those areas and hence improve people’s living standards and education for poor kids.

As the government seeks to alleviate the effects of the lockdown brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, emphasis should be placed on ensuring that systems that are supposed to protect girls and women from child marriages are not compromised. The WASH program has provided 1,884 students access to hygiene and sanitation facilities in 26 schools, of which four were equipped with a menstrual hygiene management system. 1,776 students in 12 schools benefited from the availability of drinking water, which has reduced wash problems in Senegal and their schools.

References

Cover Image by Victor Rutka on Unsplash

Educational Challenges in Croatia

Written by Riccardo Armeni

Croatia is a Southeastern-European country that is part of the Balkan region. It declared its independence from the war-torn and now-dissolved SFRY (Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) in 1991, beginning decades of rebirth. The Republic of Croatia borders Slovenia, Hungary, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro, whereas the Adriatic Sea covers its whole western side. From an etymological perspective, the country derives its name from an ancient version of Slavic and roughly translates to ‘guardian’ or “one who guards” (Matasović, 2019). As previously mentioned, after the dissolution of Yugoslavia and the formation of several sovereign states, Croatia has begun a period of renaissance that is still going on to this day, primarily focused on promoting tourism, with the industrial and agricultural sectors largely contributing to the national economy.

This economic resurgence, however, does not go hand-in-hand with other aspects of societal development. Although the sparkling docks of Dubrovnik, known as “Venice-on-the-sea”, or the festive and colourful islands of Hvar and Pag may fascinate people, they may also blind them from the evident challenges that Croatia hides in its educational system. Unsuccessful policy developments, the worrying state-of-affairs of some regions and the inevitable effects of Covid-19 concocted a lethal cocktail that left the institutional context for education in subpar conditions.

Photo by CDC on Unsplash.

REFORMS AND POLICY DEVELOPMENTS

Croatia has developed an initiative called the National Plan for the Development of Education and Training that has been implemented in the past years and it is supposed to last until 2027. It is a comprehensive approach to the challenge-riddled education system present in the country, where 10 goals have been set and actions have been taken in order to satisfy said goals (European Commission, 2023). The majority of these revolve around all-access to early levels of education like preschool and primary ones, with improvements in efficiency, effectiveness and overall process quality. Others are concerned with themes of inclusivity and fairness, with the aim of fostering comprehensive environments as a way to ameliorate the current state of inequalities.

Special children are also taken into consideration, both ones with disabilities and those with special talents, where the government has promised to create a platform that tailors the support to their needs and their talents. Lastly, the final goals target Croatian students that live abroad, with the intention of aligning their professional opportunities with the national curriculum, as well as the implementation of ICTs throughout the entire educational hierarchy in order to advance the current level of digital literacy and augment the quality of the processes by utilizing technology. The general idea is that resource allocation, strategic planning and most importantly collaboration among stakeholders are the fundamental pillars on which this national plan is based on: as a consequence, implementation remains the real issue (European Commission, 2023).

THE REGION OF SLAVONIA

Slavonia is a historical region that extends towards the north-eastern part of the country; once a prosperous and fertile region, it was devasted during the war and has struggled to recover since then. Regrettably, Croatia’s public administration has shown negligence towards the region in terms of economic support: out of the all FDI (foreign direct investment) allocated for the whole Republic of Croatia within the past decade, only a meagre 2% was spent for Slavonia (Brajkovic & Ambasz, 2023). The most concerning aspect of this failed improvement is the disastrous conditions in which the education system was left. What’s even more alarming is the combination of inexistent skillsets and low levels of education displayed by the individuals present in the local workforce; this negative overview is amplified by a number of dispositional factors, such as the elevated emigration of youngsters and skilled workers registered in the region (Brajkovic & Ambasz, 2023).

As previously outlined, the area’s fertility is the primary source of income for the region, with the agri-food industry accounting for almost one third of the overall output for Slavonia; however, only 10% of farmers has received any type of formal training, which is three times lower as compared to the European Union average (Brajkovic & Ambasz, 2023). On the other side of the spectrum, more and more people are dropping out of their tertiary education studies, and consequently even less are getting enrolled at all (Brajkovic & Ambasz, 2023). The prime cause of this trend is that the institutions in the tertiary sector are not aligned with the needs of the workforce at the regional level: this is indicative of a mismatch regarding what is needed by potential students and what is offered from the educational context.

COVID-19

The pandemic generated by the Coronavirus has also been another factor that drastically impacted the progress of education in Croatia. A survey conducted within the first part of 2021 showed how more than half of the students that graduated secondary school within the past three years has said that the pandemic negatively influenced their mental health, including a lower interest in sports and hobbies (Europa, 2021). The most affected dimensions for learners were knowledge, skills attainment, comprehension and motivation. Other negative consequences of the pandemic can be found from the institutional side of education. It has become increasingly difficult for educators to keep students engaged during classes, especially with online learning that formally killed the knowledge spillover that stems whenever individuals are sharing the same space, such as a classroom, throughout the learning process (Europa, 2021).

Covid-19 didn’t only affect the psychological dimensions, but also physical ones, becoming tangible. As an instance, the majority of students said that wearing a mask significantly impacted on their learning experience (Europa, 2021). Moreover, those who barely managed to escape the pandemic’s heavy influence by graduating high school in the summer of 2020 (and therefore received remote learning for little over 2 months), still reported issues with transitioning out of secondary school; whether it was to venture in the labour market or to continue with higher studies, an average of 40% out of the graduating individuals claimed they were not properly prepared for the future (Europa, 2021). Ultimately, there is a huge need of platforms or special programs that accompany teenager learners in their psychological and social needs.

Photo by Compare Fibre on Unsplash.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

To conclude, Croatia has been making strides in their efforts regarding improving education, although it is clear that the country is still a long way from achieving a comprehensive network of quality education and overall processes. The National Plan for the Development of Education and Training that was set in motion in recent years is bringing about good adjustments, but collaboration is required from all involved parties in order to smoothen the implementation of said program.

The first step towards obtaining this outcome would be a holistic approach, where the various relevant institutions are coordinated in the implementation of initiatives and programs, with a continuous monitoring in order to identify and correct mistakes. Furthermore, there should be more emphasis placed on the attainment of micro-qualifications, with the support of financing programmes sponsored by state institutions – and a special focus on digital as well as green skills (European Commission, 2023).

Secondly, a bigger interest for the region of Slavonia: the establishment of a regional committee in charge of keeping stakeholders connected and facilitating the coordination of activities at all administrative levels is advised. That area is ripe with possibilities, and with just a little effort from the involved institutions it can aim to become a primary weapon for the economy of Croatia, along with a resurgence of education levels as well as enrolment and graduation targets in the region.

Lastly, the development of platforms that promote social well-being, with a major emphasis on psychological implications that resulted from COVID-19, could be helpful. In addition, remote learning needs some refinement, with increased participation from all the involved stakeholders and support for prolonged use of content, as well as the proposition of new possibilities for blended learning (Europa, 2021).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BalkanInsight. (2017). Croatia Teachers Protest Over Stalled Education Reforms. Retrieved from: https://balkaninsight.com/2017/06/01/pupils-need-to-develop-skills-croatia-professors-claim-05-31-2017/

rajkovic, L., & Ambasz, D. (2023). Analyzing education outcomes and skills mismatch in Croatia’s lagging Slavonia region. Retrieved from: https://blogs.worldbank.org/europeandcentralasia/analyzing-education-outcomes-and-skills-mismatch-croatias-lagging-slavonia

Eurydice. (2023). Ongoing reforms and policy developments. Retrieved from: https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/croatia/ongoing-reforms-and-policy-developments

Matasović, R. (2019). Ime Hrvata. Croatian Philological Society. Retrieved from: https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/332786

ReferNet Croatia; Cedefop (2021). Croatia: survey confrims impact of COVID-19 pandemic on education. National news on VET. Retrieved from: https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/news/croatia-survey-confirms-impact-covid-19-pandemic-education

Educational Challenges in Uganda

Written by Luna Plet

Uganda, also known as the “Pearl of Africa” is home to more than 32.0 million people and is rich in culture and diversity.[i] Since the colonial period, the education system has undergone many systematic changes. After gaining independence in 1962, several committees and other government actors were created to monitor educational systems and standards throughout the country. This has positively influenced the nation, as literacy rates have grown exponentially in the past years. Most recently, the literacy rate (of those 15 and older) has increased by 2.47% from 2018 to about 79% in 2021.[ii] In Uganda, children view school as a vital and happiness-inducing aspect of their lives, strongly linking it to their aspirations for achieving future success and securing good jobs.[iii] They relish their interactions with their peers. The situation is a source of sadness and anxiety for those not in school, as they fear it may jeopardize their prospects. However, obtaining an education remains one of their foremost life goals, and they are determined to attain it. Therefore, this article will delve deep into the challenges that Uganda is facing that result in the barrier between children and education.

Poverty

Poverty and education are inextricably linked, as individuals living in poverty may drop out of school to engage in activities that provide immediate livelihood improvements.  While income inequality, gender disparities, and regional disparities present significant obstacles, Ugandans are leveraging education to carve brighter futures for themselves.[iv] This progress is evident through government initiatives, private school alternatives, and the enduring zeal for education among the Ugandan populace.

Public Education Initiatives

Uganda instituted the Universal Primary Education Policy in 1997, which eliminated fees for students attending the first seven years of school, covering primary 1 to primary 7. Although attendance remained voluntary, parents were still responsible for providing essential supplies and contributing to the construction of school facilities. Remarkably, primary school attendance surged by 145% within six years of implementing this policy. In 2007, the program expanded to encompass secondary education.[v] This remarkable increase in attendance reflects the profound thirst for education within Uganda. Although this can help combat poverty by ensuring universal access to education, the program’s impact on poverty remains limited. John Ekaju argues that this ‘UPE-centric’ approach overlooks the predicament of a considerable number of illiterate children, youth, and adults.[vi] Although the UPE policy eliminated general fees, the reality is that schooling is not entirely free, as families continue to grapple with expenses such as Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) fees, books, materials, mid-day meals, examination fees, and uniforms.[vii] Moreover, children, both in primary and secondary levels, are plagued by concerns about the threat of physical violence and sexual abuse from teachers or peers, rampant teacher absenteeism, and overcrowded and inadequately maintained facilities, often citing these as reasons for their non-attendance or dropout[viii]. Therefore, Ekaju suggests a reevaluation of the policy, predicting that enhanced higher education could halve poverty rates.

Moreover, poverty profoundly impacts school readiness, which reflects a child’s ability to thrive academically and socially in a school environment. Poverty negatively affects school readiness through various factors, including health issues stemming from inadequate nutrition, homelessness, food insecurity, and the inability to access medical treatment for illnesses. These factors place immense stress on learners, hindering their ability to succeed in school.

Challenges in Secondary and Higher Education

Education in Uganda is intensely competitive, with rigorous examinations following primary school dictating access to secondary education. Often, this selection process favours the best-performing students, with schools striving to enhance their grade averages and national rankings. While primary education attendance has improved, the quality of education itself has not kept pace. The dearth of resources coupled with an overwhelming student-to-teacher ratio, sometimes reaching 100 students per class, creates adverse conditions for educators and learners.[ix] This impairs the effectiveness of individualized instruction, a critical component of quality education. Consequently, students who aspire to receive a quality education often turn to costly private schools.

Gender Roles in Education

Remarkably, girls have achieved significant educational progress, with higher primary and secondary enrollment rates than boys.[x] However, they still confront gender-based obstacles to staying in school, including early marriages and negative community attitudes towards girls’ education, such as the perception that fees are wasted on them. Some girls are additionally hindered by their inability to afford sanitary pads, leading to occasional absences and, in some cases, permanent dropouts.

Role of Private Education

Boarding and private schools offer a higher quality of education, supported by better-qualified teachers who can provide personalized attention to students. This option is promising for some families but remains inaccessible to those entrenched in poverty. Many families in Uganda survive on less than $2 a day, and the typical annual costs for primary schools range from $50 to $150 for day schools, making them financially unattainable. The Initiative for Social and Economic Rights emphasizes that the fees charged by private schools perpetuate discrimination and further exclude children from low-income households.

Photo by Stijn Kleerebezem on Unsplash

COVID-19

March 2020 will forever be etched in the annals of the education community in Uganda as the month when all schools across the nation shuttered their doors.[xi] The government’s decision to institute nationwide school closures was a response to the looming threat of the deadly coronavirus pandemic. The far-reaching consequences of this decision affected pupils and students across the country.

Despite the widening income gap among Ugandan families, a substantial portion of whom benefit from Universal Primary Education (UPE) and Universal Secondary Education (USE), the swift implementation of these closures necessitated an abrupt shift to internet, television, radios, and newspapers for learning, particularly among the candidate classes. This inevitable transition placed immense pressure on candidates, leaving little room for comprehensive planning. According to recent poverty statistics released by the Ministry of Finance, the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated poverty levels in Uganda, with a rise to 28 per cent.[xii] The Eastern region, with a higher poverty rate and a higher likelihood of falling into poverty, surged to 53.3 percent from 28.9 percent, followed by the Northern region at 44.8 percent from 30.3 percent. Unsurprisingly, the general performance levels in the final 2020 Uganda National Examinations Board (UNEB) exams, both for UPE and USE, serve as a reflection of the income disparities in the country, particularly between regions.

Poverty and education are inextricably linked, as individuals living in poverty may drop out of school to engage in activities that provide immediate livelihood improvements. Despite government promises to ensure continuity of learning during school closures, there was little progress in providing learners with access to devices such as radios and televisions, particularly in rural households and villages. Furthermore, many households lacked dry cells for radios, and most rural areas suffered from a lack of electricity. Combined with challenges in internet connectivity and network coverage, as well as economic pressures on families, distance learning became an unrealistic solution. Overall, resource inequalities between rural and urban areas have persisted for decades, with rural areas lacking the necessary technology and infrastructure for transformation. The COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated these disparities.

Conclusion

In conclusion, recognizing the significance of investing in children is paramount for national development. With children and young people constituting a substantial portion of the population, they represent invaluable assets for Uganda’s future. Child poverty transcends individual and household levels, extending to lifelong consequences such as compromised education and diminished earning potential for those whose growth is stunted in their formative years. The ripple effect extends to the economy, with estimates indicating that Uganda experiences an annual GDP loss of 5.6% due to undernutrition.[xiii] Consequently, it is imperative that interventions in health, education, and protection target children at the right juncture. Such investments guarantee the fulfilment of children’s rights and set in motion a virtuous cycle of growth and human development, benefiting the nation as a whole.

Overall, these findings underscore the pressing need to address educational challenges in Uganda to ensure that children, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds, have equal access to quality education, fostering their personal development and the nation’s future growth and development.

References

[i] “Facts & Figures | Uganda National Web Portal.”

[ii] “Uganda Literacy Rate 1991-2023.”

[iii] UNICEF, “Situation Analysis of Child Poverty and Deprivation in Uganda.”

[iv] “EDUCATION CHALLENGES FACED BY UGANDAN CHILDREN IN RURAL AREAS.”

[v] Thelwell, “The Impact of Education on Poverty in Uganda.”

[vi] Thelwell.

[vii] UNICEF, “Situation Analysis of Child Poverty and Deprivation in Uganda.”

[viii] UNICEF.

[ix] Thelwell, “The Impact of Education on Poverty in Uganda.”

[x] UNICEF, “Situation Analysis of Child Poverty and Deprivation in Uganda.”

[xi] The independent, “Poverty Undermines Uganda’s Public Education.”

[xii] The independent.

[xiii] UNICEF, “Situation Analysis of Child Poverty and Deprivation in Uganda.”

“Facts & Figures | Uganda National Web Portal.” Accessed October 17, 2023. https://www.gou.go.ug/topics/facts-figures.

The independent. “Poverty Undermines Uganda’s Public Education.” The Independent Uganda: (blog), August 12, 2021. https://www.independent.co.ug/poverty-undermines-ugandas-public-education/.

Thelwell, Kim. “The Impact of Education on Poverty in Uganda.” The Borgen Project (blog), July 23, 2020. https://borgenproject.org/education-and-poverty-in-uganda/.

Tuyambe – Kinder Not in Africa. “EDUCATION CHALLENGES FACED BY UGANDAN CHILDREN IN RURAL AREAS,” September 28, 2020. https://www.tuyambe.org/education-challenges-faced-by-ugandan-children-in-rural-areas.

“Uganda Literacy Rate 1991-2023.” Accessed October 17, 2023. https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/UGA/uganda/literacy-rate.

UNICEF. “Situation Analysis of Child Poverty and Deprivation in Uganda,” 2014.

Cover Image by bill wegener on Unsplash

International Day of Persons with Disabilities

Learning Left Behind: Post-COVID Struggles of Children with Disabilities in Education

Roughly 240 million children, constituting one in every ten worldwide, live with disabilities. Regrettably, these children frequently encounter barriers that impede their fundamental rights, particularly access to education in schools. The importance of education for children is widely recognised, but children with disabilities continue to stay behind, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic. Target 4.5 of the SDGs highlights the importance of eradicating gender disparities and inequalities in education whilst placing emphasis on guaranteeing educational access for individuals with disabilities. Article 24 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also notices the importance for children with disabilities of accessing “inclusive, quality and free primary education”.

Despite the widespread recognition of the importance of education for children with disabilities, in 2020, only 68 per cent of countries incorporated inclusive education definitions into their policies. Broken Chalk recognises the urgent need to address the lack of inclusive education for children with disabilities. The lack of inclusive policies from the governments lifts many barriers for children with disabilities. Many of them face societal stigma or poverty, which, paired with insufficiently trained educators, inadequate learning resources, and inaccessible infrastructure, increase their chances of either never enrolling or dropping out of school.

UNICEF Innocenti’s Research Library presents compelling evidence that amidst the profound impact of COVID-19, the pandemic introduced the prospect of a universally accessible learning approach through open and distance learning initiatives. These initiatives hold the potential to offer more equitable educational opportunities for all children. However, realising this potential hinges on access to essential technologies, internet connectivity, and educators equipped with the competencies to provide remote education systematically, especially for children with disabilities.

While promising, the provision of remote learning often overlooks the accessibility needs of children with disabilities, resulting in a widening educational gap between those who can access education remotely and those who cannot. Online learning initiatives offered by national education ministries are reportedly inadequately accommodating for disabilities, leading adolescents to experience heightened anxiety or discontinue their studies altogether. Broken Chalks strongly supports the creation of accessible and high-quality educational materials. This includes advocating for flexible curriculum delivery methods that account for differences among learners.

Gender and poverty further compound these challenges, creating systemic discrimination at the intersection of multiple factors.

The evidence underscores gender as a critical social determinant of exclusion, particularly impacting women and girls with disabilities. Relative to boys with disabilities, women and girls around the world experienced higher risk factors for gender-based violence, increased barriers to accessing sexual and reproductive health and/or loss of access to healthcare, education, employment and other necessary supports. Broken Chalk believes that education is crucial to working towards the elimination of violence against women and girls with disabilities.

Moreover, poverty is a significant barrier, restricting access to the internet and affordable quality technologies like cameras, screens, and internet bandwidth. This limitation often impedes access to distance learning, notably in humanitarian settings. Poverty significantly amplifies the challenges faced by children with disabilities in their educational journey as families grapple with the added expenses of sustaining their children’s education. Prevailing negative perceptions regarding the abilities of children with disabilities can further intensify this financial strain. Consequently, families might hesitate to enrol their children in schools, perceiving limited advantages.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a surge in mental health disorders, exacerbated existing psychosocial disabilities, limited access to crucial healthcare services, heightened obstacles to social protection and elevated the risks of stigma, discrimination, neglect, violence, and abuse among individuals with disabilities.

Broken Chalks advocates for the collection of valuable insights to fortify programs and enhance partner capabilities.

The active engagement of parents in their children’s education stands out as a crucial and reliable predictor of academic success. Despite the evident advantages of parental involvement, children with disabilities often lack equal support for their learning compared to their peers without disabilities. Parents may encounter difficulties in adjusting their communication and interaction styles to cater to their child’s disability-specific needs, consequently feeling less equipped to engage in their child’s education and sometimes withdrawing their support.

The decision to leave school prematurely limits the future prospects for education and employment among these children, denying them the necessary skills and knowledge essential for advancing their careers. Broken Chalk firmly advocates for increasing inclusive education as a pivotal means to enhance the prospects of numerous children with disabilities through the educational challenges following the COVID-19 pandemic. Inclusive education embodies the enhancement of conditions and capacities within the education system to accommodate all learners, irrespective of gender, ethnicity, language, socioeconomic background, nationality, place of residence, or disability status, among other characteristics. It fosters meaningful and successful engagement within the educational framework. This concept encompasses various community and school infrastructure elements, norms, attitudes, and behaviours at the family, community, and school levels.

Broken Chalk calls for urgent investments to lower the educational gaps of children with disabilities that have exponentially grown after the COVID-19 Pandemic through promoting inclusive education all around the world. Moreover, Broken Chalk calls for taking on an intersectional perspective to diminish the societal stigma around children with disabilities throughout education.

Broken Chalk announces it to the public with due respect.

Signed,

Broken Chalk

Challenges facing the Education System in Angola

Written by Ruth Lakica

The Cidade Alta in Luanda, Angola, stretches along a ridge lined by pink colonial buildings including the president’s and archbishop’s palaces. Photo by David Stanley on Flickr.

Introduction

Education is a fundamental right for all humans around the globe. Regardless of one’s economic or social status,  they should be able to have access to education. Even though this seems obvious and like common knowledge, it is not the reality for many Angolans. Nevertheless, the government has and is making significant efforts to cab illiteracy.  For instance, in recent years, Angola has significantly reformed its education system, improving literacy and enrollment rates. However, school completion rates indicate high levels of dropout. The Angolan Education Law (2021) makes primary education free and compulsory for six years, but approximately 2 million children are still out of school.  The country’s long-term strategy–Estratégia de Longo Prazo Angola 2025–promotes the human and educational development of the Angolan people.

Conflicts and insecurity

Despite the civil war ending more than 15 years ago, Angola still faces—and will continue to face—challenges in its education system that date back to these years of violence. Primary education in Angola is compulsory and free for four years for children between 7 and 11, but the government estimates that approximately two million children are not attending school.

In areas where classrooms were utterly demolished during the war and have not yet been rebuilt, classes typically are held outside and often must be cancelled due to bad weather. Where classrooms exist, they tend to be overcrowded and undersupplied, with outdated or insufficient books and pencils and not enough desks and chairs.

Lack of enough qualified teachers

Debates about teacher quality lack in Angolan educational institutions are constant. These were and continue to be pointed out as teachers without the desired quality to teach in higher education, in addition to being few, forcing them to become multipurpose: the teachers lack in Angolan educational institutions causes the few teachers to teach a large number of subjects, and in many cases, subjects outside their comfort area.

The Angolan government focused on education expansion for a long time and forgot about teaching quality in the same institutions. Therefore, the institutions, especially private ones, arise without verification of the curriculum they presented, which was never in accordance with the requirements for their functioning, many of them without appropriate facilities and without enough teachers to follow the several existing courses. And several other factors contributed to the higher education institutions’ quality being relatively low.

Household poverty

The educational level was directly related to the incidence of poverty in Angola from March 2018 to February 2019. According to Statista, among people with no education, 56.5 per cent lived with a level of consumption below the poverty line. Among individuals with primary education, the rate amounted to 54.9 per cent. Even though the poverty incidence among people with higher education was the lowest, 17.3 per cent of people with an upper secondary education or more were living above the poverty line. In December 2018, the total poverty line in Angola was estimated at roughly 12.2 thousand Kwanzas (approximately 22 U.S. dollars).

Impact of drought

The challenges for accessing education imposed by the cyclical pastoral migration in Cunene – particularly for boys – are well-known. However, the severe drought plaguing the South Region of Angola has intensified the phenomenon, causing unprecedented stress on the province’s education system.

According to Reliefweb, In the municipality of Curoca, one of the hardest hit, 13 schools have closed since the beginning of the year due to student absences. Of Cunene’s 887 primary schools, 614 are affected by the drought in some way, which is causing severe disruption to no less than 70% of the province’s 214,000 students.

When children must split their time between fetching water and protecting their families’ greatest wealth, the livestock, their education suffers.

Impact of Covid-19

The pandemic caused by the SARS Covid-19 came to monitor investments made not only in the health sector but also in education and, above all, in the higher education subsystem. The pandemic led governments to close university campuses and face-to-face classes suspension for a considerable period of time as a measure to prevent the virus contamination from spreading. Some countries with the distance learning modality in their school curricula were forced to make it a strategy, intensifying them to reduce the pedagogical damage that was felt due to the pandemic caused by COVID-19. Given the uncertainty of an end date for the pandemic, other countries were forced to bet on this modality of distance learning.

Until 2020, the Angolan State did not recognize any studies carried out at a distance, both within the country and abroad (Presidential Decree n° 59/20, of 3 March). The emergence of the pandemic was necessary to show the importance of distance. It blended learning, leading it to adopt the strategy used by most countries to avoid a catastrophe at the educational level.

Green Schools campaign in Eiffel School, in Angola. Photo by Mayada Marrom on Wikimedia Commons.

Water, sanitation and hygiene

According to USAID, “nearly half the population of Angola (49.3%) lacks access to clean drinking water and (54.7%) of households do not have access to adequate sanitation facilities.” As a result, many Angolans face a high risk of exposure to waterborne illnesses, further burdening the nation’s existing healthcare infrastructure, worsening malnutrition and negatively impacting the economy.

Moreover, the southern regions of Angola are experiencing a prolonged drought, which has gravely impacted the nation’s health, sanitation, water access and education services. More than 1.2 million Angolans face water scarcity due to the drought. In the Cunene province, the drought has caused “serious disruptions” to school access for nearly 70% of students.

Teenage pregnancy and child marriages

Angola has one of the highest teenage pregnancy rates in the world. Underlying factors include limited knowledge of family planning, inadequate availability of commodities, limited access to skilled health workers, and insufficient household resources allocated to sexual and reproductive health. The high rate of teenage pregnancy increases the already existing vulnerability of girls, as pregnancy is often an impediment to continuing education, exemplified by the low literacy rates of only 36.5% for young women aged 15 to 24. The country has 10 million girls and women of reproductive age. Although 75% of girls attend primary education, this proportion drops to around 15.5% in secondary education, coinciding with the first menstruation age. High fertility rates and high levels of teenage pregnancy also increase the risk of maternal mortality. In this context, behaviour change interventions are crucial to empowering young women and men to make better decisions to protect themselves.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Angola’s government, therefore, has a responsibility to extend better social services in rural areas, such as roads, schools, and hospitals, to facilitate development in those areas and hence improve people’s living standards and education for poor kids.

As the government seeks to alleviate the effects of the lockdown brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, emphasis should be placed on ensuring that systems that are supposed to protect girls and women from child marriages are not compromised. Clean water must be readily available for people to improve their hygiene habits, as must soap. And girls must have privacy and dignity when using sanitation facilities. The Government of Angola should respond to the drought in the southern region, which also affects the provinces of Namibe, Huila and Bie, so that children can focus on their education.

References
  1. Global partnership for education. (2022, November 22). The Angolan Education law(2021). https://www.globalpartnership.org/where-we-work/angola