Nicaragua is a Central American country that the Spanish colonised in the 16th century. Its independence began at the beginning of the 19th century, with a split between groups that defended monarchical ideals and groups that defended independence. For a time, the country became part of the provinces of Central America, and only in 1838 did it become a republic. Understanding this process of late independence is relevant to understanding the country’s politics and how these relations affect education.
There is an intense process of political rivalry between liberal and conservative groups, which has led to civil war and fostered close relations with US politicians. As a result of these close ties, Nicaragua suffered a series of American interventions aimed at protecting its interests in the region. These interventions led to another civil war, starting in 1926. These conflicts occurred between liberals and conservatives, with various political and local consequences for the population.
Another historical event that has led to analysis of the country’s current situation was the Sandinista insurrection of 1972. These revolutions sought to end a period of dictatorship that had been in place since 1936. This movement was one of the first to align two strands: liberation Christianity and Marxism. Christians played an important role as allies of the revolutionaries in this historic moment.
There are undoubtedly many other nuances and other relevant moments in Nicaragua’s history, but these specific moments indicate the attacks on students that have been taking place recently, especially on university students.
Attack on human rights
In 2018, the Nicaraguan Association for Human Rights (ANPDH) reported the deaths of more than 280 people and more than 2,000 injured due to President Daniel Ortega’s reaction to protesters. The protests were against a reduction in budget pressure. In addition, several university students took to the streets to demand more assertive government action on other issues, such as forest fires. It can be said that this year was crucial for human rights in Nicaragua, especially in terms of education, since students were responsible for demanding fairer actions for the country’s population.
The reactions of the government and government-backed groups against the protesters shocked the country and the world, even causing threats to the Nicaraguan Association for Human Rights (ANPDH), which closed its office in the country due to harassment and death threats over the phone.
Human rights activists become targets of a backlash against protests. Not only students have suffered from this political situation of curtailment of rights, but also doctors and health workers have reported constant attacks and threats.
Since then, it has been possible to observe the role of President Daniel Ortega’s government and how it reacts to social demands. Mainly by attacking students who participated in protests to guarantee human rights.
Attack on universities
In 2022, the struggle of university students continues. Daniel Ortega’s government has instituted reforms to control the country’s education system better. As an example of these oppressive attitudes, the Central American University (UCA) announced that classes and administrative activities had been suspended in August 2022. The UCA’s assets and financial accounts were to be transferred to the government.
Groups from the Jesuit order and students claimed that Daniel Ortega’s government declared the UCA a centre of terrorism against the government. Therefore, it should be held responsible for the university’s accounts. The UN issued a statement reaffirming the impact of this authoritarian change on the right to education. Dictatorial attitudes characterise these actions aimed at the university in an attempt to curtail critical thinking and the right to demand social policies for all.
The question arises regarding the right to education, especially an education that provides free and critical thinking. A variety of theorists and researchers have reinforced the event as dictatorial since not even the university with the highest level of teaching quality in the country was unscathed by government oppression.
The process of revoking these universities, which began with the repressions in 2018, has been accentuated. In 2022, private universities were legally placed as hotbeds of opposition to the government. Several foreign universities with campuses in Nicaragua were closed because they did not follow the authorities of the government in question. The complexity of the issue can be seen in the use of the legal apparatus to silence the voices of students and university professors.
Conclusion
The news from 2023 shows that this event is not over. Daniel Ortega’s government continues to attack university institutions in retaliation for the 2018 protests. Specific attacks on private centres and religious institutions demonstrate a curtailment of the right to education in Nicaragua.
Academics and students are silenced at every turn because there is an attempt to strengthen power and silence political opponents. This is not the first government to try to take away the right to a free and critical education, which shows human rights defenders the need for a continuous struggle to guarantee this right in all spaces. The government’s regulation is mainly aimed at leading institutions in social studies. Researchers are banned from accessing public reports and statistics to carry out their work. It can be said that there has been a definitive attack on education in Nicaragua in recent years.
Many scholars report a totalitarian tendency on the part of the government. The legal apparatus and the force of the state are being used to curtail the right to education, critical thinking, and protests to guarantee quality of life. It is essential to pay attention to this situation since critics and students report disproportionate oppression. The use of militias has been intensive, and the threats to the voices of this oppression have been silenced.
International reactions can be observed, but the COVID-19 pandemic has changed the perception of the events suffered by Nicaragua students, academics, and human rights defenders. It is necessary to emphasise and discuss what can be done to guarantee human rights, especially critical and quality education, in Nicaragua.
Selser, G. (2023, September 12). UN says Nicaragua’s human rights violations and persecution of dissidents are on the rise | AP News. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/nicaragua-human-rights-united-nations-04dd198410aa10760a778166db26a4bf
Education is a human right, not a privilege. This means education is legally guaranteed for all human beings without discrimination and for this reason, states are obliged to “protect, respect, and fulfil the right to education”.i In instances where states violate or deprive their citizens of the right to education, they are expected to be held accountable for such violations.
As a member of the United Nations (UN) and the African Union (AU), the Republic of Djibouti, has ratified several human rights conventions. Among these is the Universal Declaration on Human Rights which was adopted in 1948. As proclaimed in Article 26, everyone has the right to education. As signatory, Djibouti has made legally binding international commitments to adhere to the standards including protecting and respecting the right to education. In addition to its obligations through international commitments, the Constitution of Djibouti emphasises the right to education as an essential element for growth and human development. Despite this emphasis, Djibouti has not been able to guarantee the right to education to everyone in the country. This article will address the challenges standing in the way of the right to education, but also highlight some good practices.
Djibouti’s Educational Landscape
As a former French colonial state, its education system is based on the French system with French and Arabic as instruction languages. Compulsory education runs for nine years: primary school lasts five years and middle school lasts four years.ii For primary school, enrolment rates were under the regional average in 2020. The enrolment rate of girls in the appropriate age group for primary school was 65 percent in comparison to the regional average of almost 80 percent. For boys, the enrolment rate was 68 percent in comparison to the regional average of 81 percent.iii In 2022, 42 percent of children in the primary school age were out of school.iv
Secondary school lasts three years and thereafter, students can attend skills training college (TVET) or the University of Djibouti for at least three years.v While for primary school Djibouti does not reach the regional average, the gross enrolment rate for secondary schooling exceeds the regional average. In 2022, an enrolment rate of 57 percent was reported. According to the Oxford Business Group, this is a huge improvement as in 2001, enrolment was only 16 percent.vi For tertiary education, Djibouti again does not catch up with the region: total enrolment is only 5 percent.vii
Despite the fact that Djibouti underperforms in primary and tertiary education on the regional level, the Oxford Business Group reports clear improvements. One improvement mentioned earlier are the enrolment rates in secondary school. In addition, while enrolment rates in primary school are still below the regional average, there has been great improvement over the last two decades. The number of girls not attending primary school fell from 42,620 in 2001 to 16,872 in 2021, while the number of boys fell from 39,088 to 15,284 over the same period. Another improvement in the student-teacher ratio from 34 students per teacher in 2008 to 29 in 2018.viii
Such improvements are partly owed to the the Education Action Programme 2017-19 (Plan d’Action de l’Education, PAE). Under this programme, several results were achieved including developing a preschool strategy and recognising second-chance education centres and mainstreaming of life skills and citizenship education. Another important aspect of the programme was the inclusion of refugee children into the national education system. Such developments have been important in working towards achieving quality and accessible education for all in Djibouti.ix
Source: Global Partnership for Education | Via Flickr
Challenges Associated with Education
One of the challenges has already been noted: many children remain out of school. Other challenges include inequitable access to education, low quality of education, low availability of learning materials, and disparities due to gender, geographic areas, and socio-economic status.
Inequitable Access to Education, Low Availability of Learning Materials and Lack of Schools
Three of the main challenges facing the education sector in Djibouti are the unequal access to education, low availability of learning materials, and the lack of schools. These challenges disproportionately affect children in rural areas, especially girls, migrants, refugees, disabled children, and children on the street.x According to a 2020 report by the Ministry of National Education and Vocational Training (MENFOP), an estimated 50.5 percent of students lived within 1 km of a school, meaning the other 49.5 percent lives further away. 3.3 percent resided further than 10 km from their nearest school. Disparities due to geographic areas and socio-economic status continue to hinder the progress in improving education systems in the country.xi
With regards to refugees, Djibouti hosted 31,000 refugees and asylum seekers at the beginning of 2022. This number remained stable in 2023.xii Because of this high number, providing education for refugee children is essential. For most refugee children, language was the main barrier for accessing education. To counter such barriers, the government has translated the national curriculum into English and Arabic and has trained teachers in local languages of Afar and Somali. Also, the government recognises education previously provided to refugee students in other countries which has made it easier for them to take the Djibouti Baccalaureate examination.xiii
Additionally, as a way of making education inclusive and accessible for all, the government has developed the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) sector whose main goal is to alleviate unemployment within the country. Such trainings economically empower those from disadvantaged households who cannot afford university costs to attain skills. This shows the government has taken steps to bridge access to education between the rich and poor.xiv
Low Quality of Education
Despite progress made in recent years, low quality of education remains a challenge for Djibouti. For instance, based on the grade 5 assessments conducted in 3 subjects (French, Mathematics and Arabic), the success rate for children at the end of 2017-2018 academic year was 71.8 percent. In 2016-2017, the ratio was pegged at 64 percent.xv In light of such lower quality of education, the government has been working collaboratively with agencies such as UNICEF in order to improve the quality of education in the country.
Gender Disparities
Similar to most African countries, the gaps between male and female students in school attendance is persistent. The number of girls’ school drop outs is usually higher than that of boys, and girls are in rural areas are particularly affected. In comparison to rural areas, urban areas show an increase in gender equity in primary, secondary and tertiary education.xvi
Djibouti is observed to have made progress: as noted before, there was a large increase in the number of girls attending primary school between 2001 and 2021. Even though gender inequality is still persistent, national policies and strategies promoting women’s rights and gender equality have contributed to changes in attitude towards girls’ education. Another intervention aiding progress is the revision of teaching and learning materials in which images defying traditional depiction of women and girls in society are now displayed.xvii On this note, the government of Djibouti has made some considerable progress in bridging the gender gap in access to education, albeit slow.
Source: Global Partnership for Education Via Flickr
The Covid-19 Pandemic
Similar to elsewhere, the COVID-19 pandemic had grave consequences for education. As a way to limit the spread of the virus, measures such as containment were put in place in most countries around the globe. Such measures restricted children and adolescents from going to school and any other public facilities, which exacerbated already existing inequities in many countries. In Djibouti, the government closed down schools in April 2020. All activities were suspended until August 2020.xviii
To ensure students continued to have access to their education, MENFOP developed a distance-learning programme for both rural and urban areas. This was done, for example, through televising and radio courses as well as providing the learning materials on internet platforms. Moreover, booklets and paper materials for rural communities and refugees were provided.xix Also, through funding from the World Bank, the government supported improvement in access to remote learning and provided electronic devices and internet connectivity to schools across the country.xx In addition, the programs focused on vulnerable students, including children living in remote areas, refugees, and girls.xxi
While the programme did not reach every students, it is considered successful: 86 percent of students had access to online learning, of which 45% were girls, 18% lived in remote areas and 5% were refugees. Also, many children returned to school after schools reopened. With support of UNICEF, a campaign was launched to engage the community and parents, leading to positive results. In addition, students who experienced high levels of learning loss were offered remedial programmes.xxii Thus, even though the COVID-19 pandemic posed as a challenge within the education sector, the government together with international organisations was able to alleviate the effects caused by creating alternative ways to accessing education.
Conclusion
As discussed above, different factors continue to hinder full enjoyment of the right to education by people living in Djibouti. Many children continue to not attend schools, and low access to educational institutions remains a problem. This is compounded by low quality of education and low availability of learning materials. Such challenges are exacerbated by inequitable access to education, as well as disparities due to gender, geographic areas, and socio-economic status.
Despite aforementioned challenges, the government of Djibouti undertakes efforts to increase access to and coverage of education, especially in rural areas and for refugees. Also, its improvement in reducing gender disparities should be commended. With regards to the Covid-19 pandemic, the government managed to mitigate the negative impacts of the pandemic by providing alternative learning avenues and equipment. The involvement of local communities and parents can be praised.
Hamlaoui, Souad. (2021). Djibouti: An opportunity to transform education through enhanced sector dialogue during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Partnership Education.
The World Bank. (2015). Djibouti Needs to Build and Expand on Achievements to Educate the Next Generation. The World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/02/04/djibouti-needs-to-build-and-expand-on-achievements-to-educate-the-next-generation
i Right to Education. (2023). Understanding Education as a Rights. Right to Education. https://www.right-to-education.org/page/understanding-education-
ii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group. https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/djibouti/2023-report/health-education/greater-reach-progress-is-being-made-to-make-education-more-accessible-nationwide-in-both-rural-and-urban-areas-overview/
iii USAID. (N.d.). Djibouti: Gender. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/gender
iv USAID. (N.d). Djibouti: Education. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/education
v Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country”. Oxford Business Group.
vi Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
xvii M. Donaher. (2023). USAID Djibouti’s Early Grade Reading Activity (DEGRA) Is Transforming Gender
xviii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
xx Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
xxi Souad Hamlaoui. (2021). Djibouti: An opportunity to transform education through enhanced sector dialogue during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Partnership Education. https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/djibouti-opportunity-transform-education-through-enhanced-sector-dialogue-during-covid-19
xxii Souad Hamlaoui. (2021). Djibouti: An opportunity to transform education through enhanced sector dialogue during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Partnership Education.
Background: COVID-19 pandemic impact on school systems around the world
The coronavirus, emerging in the first months of 2020, spread rapidly across countries, and it constituted an unprecedented challenge with which the entire world had to grapple. The pandemic had all-encompassing consequences for societies and states. Not only did it put a strain on national healthcare systems, but it also affected vital policy areas such as education.
Policies and frameworks were adapted to the new reality for national educational systems to be resilient. Governments devised and implemented ad hoc measures to hamper the transmission of the virus and guarantee the right to education simultaneously. School closures soon became a standard practice among countries, and they peaked in April 2020, affecting over 1.6 billion learners worldwide.
To ensure educational continuity, states transitioned from in-person instruction towards distance teaching and learning, extensively using tools such as broadcast media (radio, TV), take-home material packages and online learning platforms. Due to the emergency context, the transition was swift in many cases, but it did require tailored and adequate support to teachers, students and families. Furthermore, quarantines and virus containment measures led to reformed learning assessment methods and high-stakes examinations.
When a lessening of COVID-19 allowed for school reopening, the Ministry of Education coordinated with the rest of government representatives to make that safe. By and large, schools began to reopen in September 2020. Despite this, countries decided on criteria governing future school closures.
Inevitably, the pandemic had adverse effects on learning opportunities and effectiveness. Not every student accessed remote learning because of child labour, connectivity gaps and gender inequality. Thereby, minimum learning losses were unavoidable. In an attempt to mitigate these losses, funds were provided to boost internet access and, at a later time, remedial programmes were introduced. Even after school reopening, an increase in dropout and disengagement rates was observed, especially for students belonging to low-income or rural households. [[i]]
Mental issues affecting learners: a call to action
Therefore, it seems evident that returning to in-person instruction is not enough to make COVID-19 consequences disappear. What is more, school is not only about learning, but it is also where personal development takes place. Schooling helps children and youth forge their values, ideas, interests, social skills and career aspirations, to name but a few. For this reason, the well-being of learners is essential to safeguard their right to education.
Undoubtedly, the mental health of students, teachers, parents and caregivers has been impacted by the pandemic. Not only did the pandemic cause mental health issues, but it also exacerbated those already present.
School closures, social isolation, health risks and the death of loved ones have had severe psychological implications on learners. Indeed, children and youth were deprived of the interpersonal dimension of everyday life and could only enjoy face-to-face relationships with family members unless they were infected. A screen became the only way to communicate and to see faces without masks. [[ii]] Moreover, the stress linked to economic instability and educational disruptions fostered a feeling ofuncertainty about studies, aspirations, and school-to-work transition, creating the perception of a hopeless future. [[iii]]
Critically, students were subjected to pandemic restrictions, but they did not engage in the decision-making processes. Even though they should have had a say in education policies, they could not easily make their voice heard, undermining their self-confidence. [[iv]]
Extensive literature underlines the need to address learners’ mental issues and advocates the provision of support services to students. Since lockdowns, governments, especially in high-income countries, have acted by setting up hotlines, recruiting counsellors or launching projects facilitating students sharing feelings and concerns. [[v]]
As learning and personal development are strongly intertwined, the Council of Europe has promoted the historical study of crises in schools to help students understand how their peers reacted and felt in the past. Thus, studying history may create a sense of unity and empathy. [[vi]]
In the drawing, we read “Facciamoci contagiare… dai buoni sentimenti!” (Let good feelings contaminate us!). Lower-secondary school students made this and many more drawings during school closures. Picture by Scuola Media della Repubblica di San Marino via Facebook.
Education responses to the pandemic-resulted predicament in San Marino
The Republic of San Marino executed its plan to cope with the pandemic first and foremost by means of nationwide school closures from 23 February to 10 June 2020, but the closures continued until the end of August because of the usual summer academic break. [[vii]] In view of the unfolding pandemic, a mixed approach between in-person instruction and remote learning was adopted. Then, there were only partial school closures during the academic year 2020/2021. To sum up, from March 2020 to August 2021, 4,170 learners were affected by school closures, and most of them belonged to lower- and upper-secondary education levels.
As a result of school closures, authorities opted for a distance learningstrategy employing online learning platforms for all education levels. Remote learning required the government to provide teachers with instructions on remote teaching, pedagogy workshops, ICT tools and free connectivity while enabling them to teach from school premises. The coverage of online learning platforms was crucial to safeguard the right to education and educational continuity for all learners. Hence, the distance learning strategy embraced policies that did pay attention to students with disabilities. The latter could attend courses on school premises and were supported with tailored materials. For instance, sign language was included in online learning programmes. Schools committed to offering vulnerable households internet subscriptions and devices at subsidised or zero costs to foster students’ access to connectivity.
A monitoring process was facilitated by observing students’ participation in online classes, their scheduled delivery of assignments, and their participation in written and oral tests. It is confirmed that more than 75 % of students attended distance learning during school closures. More importantly, the collaboration and mutual support between schools and families was enhanced through follow-up practices such as phone calls, instant messaging, emailing, videoconferencing and running household surveys on remote learning strategies.
As regards high-stake examinations for the secondary level, they were not cancelled or postponed, but they took place only via online-based oral tests, and they assessed reduced curriculum content.
As the academic year 2019/2020 was profoundly impacted by the coronavirus disease, the school calendar for the subsequent academic year 2020/2021 was adjusted with the start date on 1 September 2020, two weeks ahead of the previous schedule. The government preferred not to extend the duration of classes or the content of curricula. Learning assessments were organised at the classroom level to address learning losses, and authorities decided to launch remedial programmes in primary- and secondary-level schools as of September 2020.
After school reopening, students’ participation was monitored, and it showed that 100 % of students had attended school since September 2020, except for upper-secondary level schools where attendance share was more than 75% but not 100%. The return to in-person instruction was combined with health and hygiene precautionary measures. In the first place, hand-washing practice, using masks, temperature checks, equipment disinfection and the tracking of COVID-19-infected or exposed people were furthered and supervised by school committees. Moreover, adjustments to school and classroom physical arrangements, reducing or suspending extra-curricular activities, and combining remote and in-person learning were the most widely enforced measures. Teaching in schools’ outdoor places was encouraged in pre-primary and primary schools, whereas the progressive return of students divided into age-based cohorts concerned only pre-primary schools. Finally, classroom attendance scheduled in shifts was promoted exclusively in lower- and upper-secondary schools.
Since the pandemic had far-reaching consequences on education, the Republic of San Marino could rely on additional funds to recruit non-teaching safety personnel in all schools and teachers in pre-primary and primary schools in the academic year 2020/2021. However, only reallocations within the ordinary or even reduced education budget allowed the government to increase the education staff compensation, student loans and scholarships.
In addition to the policies implemented for school reopening, the government determined coronavirus national prevalence rates as the criterion for closing schools again. [[viii]]
The well-being of San Marino students: concerns and efforts
In San Marino’s statement, delivered during the 2022 Transforming Education Summit, the then-heads of State, the Captains Regent of the Republic of San Marino, Mr Oscar Mina II and Mr Paolo Rondelli I, recognised the two main functions of education: learning and personal development. In this respect, they declared the state’s willingness to continue abiding by the principles of equality and inclusiveness. Concerning COVID-19, they emphasise the pandemic consequences on students’ mental health and the educational system’s commitment to standing up to those. [[ix]]
Accordingly, San Marino authorities have been putting great effort into supporting students’ psychological well-being so far. During nationwide school closures, online counselling and teacher assistants lent learners a hand in facing pandemic hard times. In 2021, counselling points were arranged in secondary schools and the Centro di formazione professionale (vocational training centre).
The provision of assistance soon revealed the worrisome framework compounded by the pandemic. During the academic years 2020/2021 and 2021/2022, more than 130 students turned to the counselling services. Issues such as fear, anxiety, problematic anger management, eating and mood disorders, panic attacks, bullying and self-harm were detected. In some cases, they led to truancy and dropout. [[x]] As well, manifold addictions rose during the pandemic and after. Among them, social media, drug, and video game addictions have been widespread.The reason why COVID-19 has aggravated addictions lies in the fact that vulnerabilities consolidated while learners were suffering isolation. Consequently, youth specifically deemed social media, drugs or video games as an escape hatch from the gloomy reality. [[xi]]
Along with counselling services in secondary schools, authorities approved several projects for caring for children in pre-primary and primary schools. Both in 2021 and 2022, artists, teachers and doctors engaged together in school projects. The Giornata degli abbracci (Hugs Day) was outstanding among the initiatives. Considering that the pandemic had altered children’s emotional balance, the Giornata degli abbracci, which took place on 9 June 2022, aimed at restoring mutual trust, solidarity and good mood. [[xii]]
In December 2022, the government went one step further. After that, citizens called for the direct democracy mechanism Istanza d’ Arengo, a new professional figure, was established. Doctor Rosita Guidi has been appointed as a school psychologist. The school psychologist services are aimed at students of every level, from pre-primary to secondary schools and the vocational training centre. Dr Rosita Guidi can handle counselling requests from students, parents/caregivers, teachers and school committees. If the request concerns a minor, parents’ consent is compulsory.
The school psychologist comes to the aid of learners, teachers and families to promote the well-being of children and youth. When necessary, the undertaking of therapy paths may be suggested. [[xiii]] Although the school psychologist can easily be contacted (directly and via email), schools endorse additional methods due to privacy considerations. For instance, lower-secondary school students can request by inserting a note filled with personal and contact information in a sealed box.
The psychological support service has been warmly welcomed, given that, from December 2022 to April 2023, 60 requests were sent. [[xiv]]
With regard to students’ voice expression, San Marino has embarked on a renovation process planning to upgrade school curricula with interdisciplinarity, digital and citizenship competencies. The latter is meant to enhance the culture of peace, the education for sustainable development, human rights and gender education. Through this enrichment, students are on the right path to taking responsibility, raising their self-confidence and becoming active citizens in the democratic framework. [[xv]]
Conclusion
Two years after the pandemic outbreak, during the 2022 Transforming Education Summit, 57 % of governments stated the need to support the psycho-social well-being of students and teachers. Along the same line, international organisations and experts have incited states to invest steadily significant and adequate resources in supporting learners’ mental health. [[xvi]] Schools play a crucial role in this sensitive domain, and their role is all the more important if families do not notice psychological distress or underestimate it. San Marino has endeavoured to make the national educational system resilient to the pandemic, and its achievements have been relevant. Specifically, new counselling services have contributed to the country’s journey towards transformed education. It would be worthwhile to fund these services to a greater extent. Also, psychology training for all education staff has been proposed. [[xvii]] For all these reasons, even if San Marino’s educational transformation process is relatively recent, it is promising.
[[viii]] The information given in this section is contained in San Marino’s responses to the first and third rounds of the four-round Surveyon national Education Responses to COVID-19 School Closures. The first and third rounds of the survey were conducted respectively from May to June 2020 and from February to April 2021. The reader may find more detailed information about the four-round Surveyon national Education Responses to COVID-19 School Closures at the following address: https://tcg.uis.unesco.org/survey-on-national-education-responses-to-covid-19-school-closures/
Education is a fundamental right for all humans around the globe. Regardless of one’s economic or social status, they should be able to have access to Education. Even though this seems obvious and like common knowledge, it is not the reality for many Senegalese.
Senegal’s history of investing in education and engaging stakeholders in sector dialogue marks the government’s commitment to building a strong education system. Based on the 2019 PASEC assessment, many Senegalese students acquire basic competencies by the end of primary education, but 25% lack minimum proficiency in reading and 35% in math. Significant socioeconomic, rural-urban and regional disparities call for a more equitable and inclusive education system. While minimal learning differences are observed among girls and boys at the primary level, gender disparities emerge in secondary education, with more girls dropping out of school than boys.
Lack of enough qualified teachers
The education system in Senegal faces many challenges, such as a lack of qualified teachers, inadequate equipment and infrastructure, low-quality teaching and assessment, social inequalities and regional disparities. The government is trying to reform and modernise the education sector through various programs and partnerships with international organisations such as UNESCO or UNICEF.
Household povertyin Senegal still has work to do, with only a little over. Educational marginalisation has become a burning issue in Senegal, one of the poorest countries on the planet. About 34% of people in Senegal live on less than US $ 1.25 per day, with an average per capita income of $121 per month (Ibrahima, 2014). The results of the Harmonized Survey on Household Living Conditions (2018/2019) show that the incidence of individual poverty in Senegal is 37.8%. The country is still lagging behind in education. A large part of the population does not have easy access to education and remains marginalised from formal education, with an enrollment rate of 86.4% (ANSD, 2020). Many factors contribute to the exclusion of many young people from the education system, including gender and ICT. Furthermore, languages, particularly the English language, play a role in educational marginalisation in Senegal. What comes next is a brief introduction to the roles of gender, ICT and English in promoting or reducing educational marginalisation in Senegal. 17% gross preschool enrollment rate, but more importantly, dramatically improving quality.
Repetition and dropout in primary school
The overall financial cost of repetition and dropout in Senegal is on an upward trend due to a higher rate of both repetition and dropout. Over the 2012-2015 period, repetition and dropouts represented 13.72% of the expenses incurred by the government. This phenomenon can be explained by several factors, one of which is limited access to quality preschool education. Senegal still has work to do, with only a little over 17% gross preschool enrollment rate, but more importantly, it needs to improve the quality of education.
Impact of Covid-19
The pandemic caused by the SARS Covid-19 came to monitor investments made not only in the health sector but also in education and, above all, in the higher education subsystem. The pandemic led governments to close university campuses and suspend face-to-face classes for a considerable period to prevent the virus contamination from spreading. Some countries with the distance learning modality in their school curricula were forced to make it a strategy, intensifying them with the aim of reducing the pedagogical damage that was felt due to the COVID-19 pandemic.In Senegal, the COVID-19 pandemic and national school closures temporarily disrupted the education of 3.5 million learners and the 1.5 million children already out of school, and the dropout rate doubled.
Gender inequality in school
Despite the existence of government programmes- like free public school education until age 16 and the Girls’ Education Support Project, which provides school uniforms- the cost of schooling is still an obstacle for many families. They have to pay for learning materials and transport to school.
We also found a preference to educate boys over girls. In households with limited finances, boys are more likely to be sent to school even if girls would like to go.
Deep-seated cultural beliefs and practices – such as female genital mutilation, forced child marriages and early pregnancies – also prevent some girls from making progress in school. They, therefore, lag in education and wellbeing.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Senegal’s government, therefore, is responsible for extending better social services in schools and hospitals to facilitate development in those areas and hence improve people’s living standards and education for poor kids.
As the government seeks to alleviate the effects of the lockdown brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, emphasis should be placed on ensuring that systems that are supposed to protect girls and women from child marriages are not compromised. The WASH program has provided 1,884 students access to hygiene and sanitation facilities in 26 schools, of which four were equipped with a menstrual hygiene management system. 1,776 students in 12 schools benefited from the availability of drinking water, which has reduced wash problems in Senegal and their schools.
References
The Conversation. (2023, April 12). Only 1 in 3 girls makes it to secondary school in Senegal: here’s why and how to fix it.
Croatia is a Southeastern-European country that is part of the Balkan region. It declared its independence from the war-torn and now-dissolved SFRY (Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) in 1991, beginning decades of rebirth. The Republic of Croatia borders Slovenia, Hungary, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro, whereas the Adriatic Sea covers its whole western side. From an etymological perspective, the country derives its name from an ancient version of Slavic and roughly translates to ‘guardian’ or “one who guards” (Matasović, 2019). As previously mentioned, after the dissolution of Yugoslavia and the formation of several sovereign states, Croatia has begun a period of renaissance that is still going on to this day, primarily focused on promoting tourism, with the industrial and agricultural sectors largely contributing to the national economy.
This economic resurgence, however, does not go hand-in-hand with other aspects of societal development. Although the sparkling docks of Dubrovnik, known as “Venice-on-the-sea”, or the festive and colourful islands of Hvar and Pag may fascinate people, they may also blind them from the evident challenges that Croatia hides in its educational system. Unsuccessful policy developments, the worrying state-of-affairs of some regions and the inevitable effects of Covid-19 concocted a lethal cocktail that left the institutional context for education in subpar conditions.
Croatia has developed an initiative called the National Plan for the Development of Education and Training that has been implemented in the past years and it is supposed to last until 2027. It is a comprehensive approach to the challenge-riddled education system present in the country, where 10 goals have been set and actions have been taken in order to satisfy said goals (European Commission, 2023). The majority of these revolve around all-access to early levels of education like preschool and primary ones, with improvements in efficiency, effectiveness and overall process quality. Others are concerned with themes of inclusivity and fairness, with the aim of fostering comprehensive environments as a way to ameliorate the current state of inequalities.
Special children are also taken into consideration, both ones with disabilities and those with special talents, where the government has promised to create a platform that tailors the support to their needs and their talents. Lastly, the final goals target Croatian students that live abroad, with the intention of aligning their professional opportunities with the national curriculum, as well as the implementation of ICTs throughout the entire educational hierarchy in order to advance the current level of digital literacy and augment the quality of the processes by utilizing technology. The general idea is that resource allocation, strategic planning and most importantly collaboration among stakeholders are the fundamental pillars on which this national plan is based on: as a consequence, implementation remains the real issue (European Commission, 2023).
THE REGION OF SLAVONIA
Slavonia is a historical region that extends towards the north-eastern part of the country; once a prosperous and fertile region, it was devasted during the war and has struggled to recover since then. Regrettably, Croatia’s public administration has shown negligence towards the region in terms of economic support: out of the all FDI (foreign direct investment) allocated for the whole Republic of Croatia within the past decade, only a meagre 2% was spent for Slavonia (Brajkovic & Ambasz, 2023). The most concerning aspect of this failed improvement is the disastrous conditions in which the education system was left. What’s even more alarming is the combination of inexistent skillsets and low levels of education displayed by the individuals present in the local workforce; this negative overview is amplified by a number of dispositional factors, such as the elevated emigration of youngsters and skilled workers registered in the region (Brajkovic & Ambasz, 2023).
As previously outlined, the area’s fertility is the primary source of income for the region, with the agri-food industry accounting for almost one third of the overall output for Slavonia; however, only 10% of farmers has received any type of formal training, which is three times lower as compared to the European Union average (Brajkovic & Ambasz, 2023). On the other side of the spectrum, more and more people are dropping out of their tertiary education studies, and consequently even less are getting enrolled at all (Brajkovic & Ambasz, 2023). The prime cause of this trend is that the institutions in the tertiary sector are not aligned with the needs of the workforce at the regional level: this is indicative of a mismatch regarding what is needed by potential students and what is offered from the educational context.
COVID-19
The pandemic generated by the Coronavirus has also been another factor that drastically impacted the progress of education in Croatia. A survey conducted within the first part of 2021 showed how more than half of the students that graduated secondary school within the past three years has said that the pandemic negatively influenced their mental health, including a lower interest in sports and hobbies (Europa, 2021). The most affected dimensions for learners were knowledge, skills attainment, comprehension and motivation. Other negative consequences of the pandemic can be found from the institutional side of education. It has become increasingly difficult for educators to keep students engaged during classes, especially with online learning that formally killed the knowledge spillover that stems whenever individuals are sharing the same space, such as a classroom, throughout the learning process (Europa, 2021).
Covid-19 didn’t only affect the psychological dimensions, but also physical ones, becoming tangible. As an instance, the majority of students said that wearing a mask significantly impacted on their learning experience (Europa, 2021). Moreover, those who barely managed to escape the pandemic’s heavy influence by graduating high school in the summer of 2020 (and therefore received remote learning for little over 2 months), still reported issues with transitioning out of secondary school; whether it was to venture in the labour market or to continue with higher studies, an average of 40% out of the graduating individuals claimed they were not properly prepared for the future (Europa, 2021). Ultimately, there is a huge need of platforms or special programs that accompany teenager learners in their psychological and social needs.
To conclude, Croatia has been making strides in their efforts regarding improving education, although it is clear that the country is still a long way from achieving a comprehensive network of quality education and overall processes. The National Plan for the Development of Education and Training that was set in motion in recent years is bringing about good adjustments, but collaboration is required from all involved parties in order to smoothen the implementation of said program.
The first step towards obtaining this outcome would be a holistic approach, where the various relevant institutions are coordinated in the implementation of initiatives and programs, with a continuous monitoring in order to identify and correct mistakes. Furthermore, there should be more emphasis placed on the attainment of micro-qualifications, with the support of financing programmes sponsored by state institutions – and a special focus on digital as well as green skills (European Commission, 2023).
Secondly, a bigger interest for the region of Slavonia: the establishment of a regional committee in charge of keeping stakeholders connected and facilitating the coordination of activities at all administrative levels is advised. That area is ripe with possibilities, and with just a little effort from the involved institutions it can aim to become a primary weapon for the economy of Croatia, along with a resurgence of education levels as well as enrolment and graduation targets in the region.
Lastly, the development of platforms that promote social well-being, with a major emphasis on psychological implications that resulted from COVID-19, could be helpful. In addition, remote learning needs some refinement, with increased participation from all the involved stakeholders and support for prolonged use of content, as well as the proposition of new possibilities for blended learning (Europa, 2021).
Uganda, also known as the “Pearl of Africa” is home to more than 32.0 million people and is rich in culture and diversity.[i] Since the colonial period, the education system has undergone many systematic changes. After gaining independence in 1962, several committees and other government actors were created to monitor educational systems and standards throughout the country. This has positively influenced the nation, as literacy rates have grown exponentially in the past years. Most recently, the literacy rate (of those 15 and older) has increased by 2.47% from 2018 to about 79% in 2021.[ii] In Uganda, children view school as a vital and happiness-inducing aspect of their lives, strongly linking it to their aspirations for achieving future success and securing good jobs.[iii] They relish their interactions with their peers. The situation is a source of sadness and anxiety for those not in school, as they fear it may jeopardize their prospects. However, obtaining an education remains one of their foremost life goals, and they are determined to attain it. Therefore, this article will delve deep into the challenges that Uganda is facing that result in the barrier between children and education.
Poverty
Poverty and education are inextricably linked, as individuals living in poverty may drop out of school to engage in activities that provide immediate livelihood improvements. While income inequality, gender disparities, and regional disparities present significant obstacles, Ugandans are leveraging education to carve brighter futures for themselves.[iv] This progress is evident through government initiatives, private school alternatives, and the enduring zeal for education among the Ugandan populace.
Public Education Initiatives
Uganda instituted the Universal Primary Education Policy in 1997, which eliminated fees for students attending the first seven years of school, covering primary 1 to primary 7. Although attendance remained voluntary, parents were still responsible for providing essential supplies and contributing to the construction of school facilities. Remarkably, primary school attendance surged by 145% within six years of implementing this policy. In 2007, the program expanded to encompass secondary education.[v] This remarkable increase in attendance reflects the profound thirst for education within Uganda. Although this can help combat poverty by ensuring universal access to education, the program’s impact on poverty remains limited. John Ekaju argues that this ‘UPE-centric’ approach overlooks the predicament of a considerable number of illiterate children, youth, and adults.[vi] Although the UPE policy eliminated general fees, the reality is that schooling is not entirely free, as families continue to grapple with expenses such as Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) fees, books, materials, mid-day meals, examination fees, and uniforms.[vii] Moreover, children, both in primary and secondary levels, are plagued by concerns about the threat of physical violence and sexual abuse from teachers or peers, rampant teacher absenteeism, and overcrowded and inadequately maintained facilities, often citing these as reasons for their non-attendance or dropout[viii]. Therefore, Ekaju suggests a reevaluation of the policy, predicting that enhanced higher education could halve poverty rates.
Moreover, poverty profoundly impacts school readiness, which reflects a child’s ability to thrive academically and socially in a school environment. Poverty negatively affects school readiness through various factors, including health issues stemming from inadequate nutrition, homelessness, food insecurity, and the inability to access medical treatment for illnesses. These factors place immense stress on learners, hindering their ability to succeed in school.
Challenges in Secondary and Higher Education
Education in Uganda is intensely competitive, with rigorous examinations following primary school dictating access to secondary education. Often, this selection process favours the best-performing students, with schools striving to enhance their grade averages and national rankings. While primary education attendance has improved, the quality of education itself has not kept pace. The dearth of resources coupled with an overwhelming student-to-teacher ratio, sometimes reaching 100 students per class, creates adverse conditions for educators and learners.[ix] This impairs the effectiveness of individualized instruction, a critical component of quality education. Consequently, students who aspire to receive a quality education often turn to costly private schools.
Gender Roles in Education
Remarkably, girls have achieved significant educational progress, with higher primary and secondary enrollment rates than boys.[x] However, they still confront gender-based obstacles to staying in school, including early marriages and negative community attitudes towards girls’ education, such as the perception that fees are wasted on them. Some girls are additionally hindered by their inability to afford sanitary pads, leading to occasional absences and, in some cases, permanent dropouts.
Role of Private Education
Boarding and private schools offer a higher quality of education, supported by better-qualified teachers who can provide personalized attention to students. This option is promising for some families but remains inaccessible to those entrenched in poverty. Many families in Uganda survive on less than $2 a day, and the typical annual costs for primary schools range from $50 to $150 for day schools, making them financially unattainable. The Initiative for Social and Economic Rights emphasizes that the fees charged by private schools perpetuate discrimination and further exclude children from low-income households.
March 2020 will forever be etched in the annals of the education community in Uganda as the month when all schools across the nation shuttered their doors.[xi] The government’s decision to institute nationwide school closures was a response to the looming threat of the deadly coronavirus pandemic. The far-reaching consequences of this decision affected pupils and students across the country.
Despite the widening income gap among Ugandan families, a substantial portion of whom benefit from Universal Primary Education (UPE) and Universal Secondary Education (USE), the swift implementation of these closures necessitated an abrupt shift to internet, television, radios, and newspapers for learning, particularly among the candidate classes. This inevitable transition placed immense pressure on candidates, leaving little room for comprehensive planning. According to recent poverty statistics released by the Ministry of Finance, the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated poverty levels in Uganda, with a rise to 28 per cent.[xii] The Eastern region, with a higher poverty rate and a higher likelihood of falling into poverty, surged to 53.3 percent from 28.9 percent, followed by the Northern region at 44.8 percent from 30.3 percent. Unsurprisingly, the general performance levels in the final 2020 Uganda National Examinations Board (UNEB) exams, both for UPE and USE, serve as a reflection of the income disparities in the country, particularly between regions.
Poverty and education are inextricably linked, as individuals living in poverty may drop out of school to engage in activities that provide immediate livelihood improvements. Despite government promises to ensure continuity of learning during school closures, there was little progress in providing learners with access to devices such as radios and televisions, particularly in rural households and villages. Furthermore, many households lacked dry cells for radios, and most rural areas suffered from a lack of electricity. Combined with challenges in internet connectivity and network coverage, as well as economic pressures on families, distance learning became an unrealistic solution. Overall, resource inequalities between rural and urban areas have persisted for decades, with rural areas lacking the necessary technology and infrastructure for transformation. The COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated these disparities.
Conclusion
In conclusion, recognizing the significance of investing in children is paramount for national development. With children and young people constituting a substantial portion of the population, they represent invaluable assets for Uganda’s future. Child poverty transcends individual and household levels, extending to lifelong consequences such as compromised education and diminished earning potential for those whose growth is stunted in their formative years. The ripple effect extends to the economy, with estimates indicating that Uganda experiences an annual GDP loss of 5.6% due to undernutrition.[xiii] Consequently, it is imperative that interventions in health, education, and protection target children at the right juncture. Such investments guarantee the fulfilment of children’s rights and set in motion a virtuous cycle of growth and human development, benefiting the nation as a whole.
Overall, these findings underscore the pressing need to address educational challenges in Uganda to ensure that children, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds, have equal access to quality education, fostering their personal development and the nation’s future growth and development.
Learning Left Behind: Post-COVID Struggles of Children with Disabilities in Education
Roughly 240 million children, constituting one in every ten worldwide, live with disabilities. Regrettably, these children frequently encounter barriers that impede their fundamental rights, particularly access to education in schools. The importance of education for children is widely recognised, but children with disabilities continue to stay behind, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic. Target 4.5 of the SDGs highlights the importance of eradicating gender disparities and inequalities in education whilst placing emphasis on guaranteeing educational access for individuals with disabilities. Article 24 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also notices the importance for children with disabilities of accessing “inclusive, quality and free primary education”.
Despite the widespread recognition of the importance of education for children with disabilities, in 2020, only 68 per cent of countries incorporated inclusive education definitions into their policies. Broken Chalk recognises the urgent need to address the lack of inclusive education for children with disabilities. The lack of inclusive policies from the governments lifts many barriers for children with disabilities. Many of them face societal stigma or poverty, which, paired with insufficiently trained educators, inadequate learning resources, and inaccessible infrastructure, increase their chances of either never enrolling or dropping out of school.
UNICEF Innocenti’s Research Library presents compelling evidence that amidst the profound impact of COVID-19, the pandemic introduced the prospect of a universally accessible learning approach through open and distance learning initiatives. These initiatives hold the potential to offer more equitable educational opportunities for all children. However, realising this potential hinges on access to essential technologies, internet connectivity, and educators equipped with the competencies to provide remote education systematically, especially for children with disabilities.
While promising, the provision of remote learning often overlooks the accessibility needs of children with disabilities, resulting in a widening educational gap between those who can access education remotely and those who cannot. Online learning initiatives offered by national education ministries are reportedly inadequately accommodating for disabilities, leading adolescents to experience heightened anxiety or discontinue their studies altogether. Broken Chalks strongly supports the creation of accessible and high-quality educational materials. This includes advocating for flexible curriculum delivery methods that account for differences among learners.
Gender and poverty further compound these challenges, creating systemic discrimination at the intersection of multiple factors.
The evidence underscores gender as a critical social determinant of exclusion, particularly impacting women and girls with disabilities. Relative to boys with disabilities, women and girls around the world experienced higher risk factors for gender-based violence, increased barriers to accessing sexual and reproductive health and/or loss of access to healthcare, education, employment and other necessary supports. Broken Chalk believes that education is crucial to working towards the elimination of violence against women and girls with disabilities.
Moreover, poverty is a significant barrier, restricting access to the internet and affordable quality technologies like cameras, screens, and internet bandwidth. This limitation often impedes access to distance learning, notably in humanitarian settings. Poverty significantly amplifies the challenges faced by children with disabilities in their educational journey as families grapple with the added expenses of sustaining their children’s education. Prevailing negative perceptions regarding the abilities of children with disabilities can further intensify this financial strain. Consequently, families might hesitate to enrol their children in schools, perceiving limited advantages.
The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a surge in mental health disorders, exacerbated existing psychosocial disabilities, limited access to crucial healthcare services, heightened obstacles to social protection and elevated the risks of stigma, discrimination, neglect, violence, and abuse among individuals with disabilities.
Broken Chalks advocates for the collection of valuable insights to fortify programs and enhance partner capabilities.
The active engagement of parents in their children’s education stands out as a crucial and reliable predictor of academic success. Despite the evident advantages of parental involvement, children with disabilities often lack equal support for their learning compared to their peers without disabilities. Parents may encounter difficulties in adjusting their communication and interaction styles to cater to their child’s disability-specific needs, consequently feeling less equipped to engage in their child’s education and sometimes withdrawing their support.
The decision to leave school prematurely limits the future prospects for education and employment among these children, denying them the necessary skills and knowledge essential for advancing their careers. Broken Chalk firmly advocates for increasing inclusive education as a pivotal means to enhance the prospects of numerous children with disabilities through the educational challenges following the COVID-19 pandemic. Inclusive education embodies the enhancement of conditions and capacities within the education system to accommodate all learners, irrespective of gender, ethnicity, language, socioeconomic background, nationality, place of residence, or disability status, among other characteristics. It fosters meaningful and successful engagement within the educational framework. This concept encompasses various community and school infrastructure elements, norms, attitudes, and behaviours at the family, community, and school levels.
Broken Chalk calls for urgent investments to lower the educational gaps of children with disabilities that have exponentially grown after the COVID-19 Pandemic through promoting inclusive education all around the world. Moreover, Broken Chalk calls for taking on an intersectional perspective to diminish the societal stigma around children with disabilities throughout education.
Broken Chalk announces it to the public with due respect.
The Cidade Alta in Luanda, Angola, stretches along a ridge lined by pink colonial buildings including the president’s and archbishop’s palaces. Photo by David Stanley on Flickr.
Introduction
Education is a fundamental right for all humans around the globe. Regardless of one’s economic or social status, they should be able to have access to education. Even though this seems obvious and like common knowledge, it is not the reality for many Angolans. Nevertheless, the government has and is making significant efforts to cab illiteracy. For instance, in recent years, Angola has significantly reformed its education system, improving literacy and enrollment rates. However, school completion rates indicate high levels of dropout. The Angolan Education Law (2021) makes primary education free and compulsory for six years, but approximately 2 million children are still out of school. The country’s long-term strategy–Estratégia de Longo Prazo Angola 2025–promotes the human and educational development of the Angolan people.
Conflicts and insecurity
Despite the civil war ending more than 15 years ago, Angola still faces—and will continue to face—challenges in its education system that date back to these years of violence. Primary education in Angola is compulsory and free for four years for children between 7 and 11, but the government estimates that approximately two million children are not attending school.
In areas where classrooms were utterly demolished during the war and have not yet been rebuilt, classes typically are held outside and often must be cancelled due to bad weather. Where classrooms exist, they tend to be overcrowded and undersupplied, with outdated or insufficient books and pencils and not enough desks and chairs.
Lack of enough qualified teachers
Debates about teacher quality lack in Angolan educational institutions are constant. These were and continue to be pointed out as teachers without the desired quality to teach in higher education, in addition to being few, forcing them to become multipurpose: the teachers lack in Angolan educational institutions causes the few teachers to teach a large number of subjects, and in many cases, subjects outside their comfort area.
The Angolan government focused on education expansion for a long time and forgot about teaching quality in the same institutions. Therefore, the institutions, especially private ones, arise without verification of the curriculum they presented, which was never in accordance with the requirements for their functioning, many of them without appropriate facilities and without enough teachers to follow the several existing courses. And several other factors contributed to the higher education institutions’ quality being relatively low.
Household poverty
The educational level was directly related to the incidence of poverty in Angola from March 2018 to February 2019. According to Statista, among people with no education, 56.5 per cent lived with a level of consumption below the poverty line. Among individuals with primary education, the rate amounted to 54.9 per cent. Even though the poverty incidence among people with higher education was the lowest, 17.3 per cent of people with an upper secondary education or more were living above the poverty line. In December 2018, the total poverty line in Angola was estimated at roughly 12.2 thousand Kwanzas (approximately 22 U.S. dollars).
Impact of drought
The challenges for accessing education imposed by the cyclical pastoral migration in Cunene – particularly for boys – are well-known. However, the severe drought plaguing the South Region of Angola has intensified the phenomenon, causing unprecedented stress on the province’s education system.
According to Reliefweb, In the municipality of Curoca, one of the hardest hit, 13 schools have closed since the beginning of the year due to student absences. Of Cunene’s 887 primary schools, 614 are affected by the drought in some way, which is causing severe disruption to no less than 70% of the province’s 214,000 students.
When children must split their time between fetching water and protecting their families’ greatest wealth, the livestock, their education suffers.
Impact of Covid-19
The pandemic caused by the SARS Covid-19 came to monitor investments made not only in the health sector but also in education and, above all, in the higher education subsystem. The pandemic led governments to close university campuses and face-to-face classes suspension for a considerable period of time as a measure to prevent the virus contamination from spreading. Some countries with the distance learning modality in their school curricula were forced to make it a strategy, intensifying them to reduce the pedagogical damage that was felt due to the pandemic caused by COVID-19. Given the uncertainty of an end date for the pandemic, other countries were forced to bet on this modality of distance learning.
Until 2020, the Angolan State did not recognize any studies carried out at a distance, both within the country and abroad (Presidential Decree n° 59/20, of 3 March). The emergence of the pandemic was necessary to show the importance of distance. It blended learning, leading it to adopt the strategy used by most countries to avoid a catastrophe at the educational level.
According to USAID, “nearly half the population of Angola (49.3%) lacks access to clean drinking water and (54.7%) of households do not have access to adequate sanitation facilities.” As a result, many Angolans face a high risk of exposure to waterborne illnesses, further burdening the nation’s existing healthcare infrastructure, worsening malnutrition and negatively impacting the economy.
Moreover, the southern regions of Angola are experiencing a prolonged drought, which has gravely impacted the nation’s health, sanitation, water access and education services. More than 1.2 million Angolans face water scarcity due to the drought. In the Cunene province, the drought has caused “serious disruptions” to school access for nearly 70% of students.
Teenage pregnancy and child marriages
Angola has one of the highest teenage pregnancy rates in the world. Underlying factors include limited knowledge of family planning, inadequate availability of commodities, limited access to skilled health workers, and insufficient household resources allocated to sexual and reproductive health. The high rate of teenage pregnancy increases the already existing vulnerability of girls, as pregnancy is often an impediment to continuing education, exemplified by the low literacy rates of only 36.5% for young women aged 15 to 24. The country has 10 million girls and women of reproductive age. Although 75% of girls attend primary education, this proportion drops to around 15.5% in secondary education, coinciding with the first menstruation age. High fertility rates and high levels of teenage pregnancy also increase the risk of maternal mortality. In this context, behaviour change interventions are crucial to empowering young women and men to make better decisions to protect themselves.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Angola’s government, therefore, has a responsibility to extend better social services in rural areas, such as roads, schools, and hospitals, to facilitate development in those areas and hence improve people’s living standards and education for poor kids.
As the government seeks to alleviate the effects of the lockdown brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, emphasis should be placed on ensuring that systems that are supposed to protect girls and women from child marriages are not compromised. Clean water must be readily available for people to improve their hygiene habits, as must soap. And girls must have privacy and dignity when using sanitation facilities. The Government of Angola should respond to the drought in the southern region, which also affects the provinces of Namibe, Huila and Bie, so that children can focus on their education.
Ireland’s territory is divided into two parts: Ireland, sometimes referred to as “the Republic of Ireland”, and Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom. Ireland is a member of the European Union.
The population of the country in 1926 was 2,971,922, increasing to 4982 million in 2023. Ireland became a free state in 1922, a parliamentary democracy governed by the 1937 Constitution of Ireland. The official languages are both English and Irish.
From the 1950s to the 1970s, the Irish economy was growing and increasing not only in the political field but also in the educational field. In 2008 unemployment increased, and GDP dropped in growth. The recovery plan agreed upon at that time required a significant cut in public spending and a range of measures to stabilize finances and return to growth; Ireland exited successfully at the end of 2013. The Expenditures on Education by the Government are 3.72 % as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP); this is lower than both the regional average (4.6%) and the average for its income group (4.5%).
Ireland’s educational system
In Ireland, attendance at National Schools is free, and the State must provide free primary education. Some private elementary schools charge a fee. Attendance at most secondary schools is free, but some private schools charge a fee for the families, even in secondary education. Sometimes the schools bear the expenses for books, uniforms and exams. The history of Ireland has been shaped by the influence of religious institutions in society, including the education system; therefore, the Catholic Church plays an important role in education: most primary schools, like the National Schools, are run by the Church and subsidized by the State. Most Secondary Schools – private schools for secondary education – are also run by Catholic institutions. Education in Ireland is obliged from age 6 to 16, or until students have completed three years of secondary education.
Source: Europe Academy of Religion and Society.
Elementary school consists of eight grades. Pupils typically advance to secondary school at age 12. The Second Level is divided into a Junior Cycle and a Senior Cycle. Both general and vocational subjects are taught in secondary education.
Secondary education includes secondary institutions, vocational, comprehensive and community colleges. The number of young people continuing their education after compulsory education is high: more than 90 % of 16-year-olds, 75 % of 17-year-olds, and about 50 % of 18-year-olds attend school full-time.
Education in Ireland: outlook for growth
The challenges faced by Ireland for the education system are multiple. Ireland is trying to accommodate a rapid increase in enrolment. However, primary enrolment is declining after reaching a peak in 2018, and post-primary enrolment continues to grow strongly, increasing by 34,300 between 2017 and 2021. Full-time postsecondary education enrollment is also rising rapidly, with an increase of nearly 16,400 between 2017 and 2021 and 13 additional postsecondary schools since 2017, reflecting the substantial increase in enrolment.
The total number of teachers has increased by over 7,804 since 2017, from 64,692 to 72,496. The student-teacher ratio in elementary schools has decreased from 15.3 to 13.7 since 2017 and from 12.8 to 12.2 in secondary schools.
Not only is Ireland trying to increase enrolment, but it’s also promoting a more pluralistic school system that better accommodates diversity, especially religious diversity, in line with the changing profile of the population. A number of schools in Ireland, from 2019, have started to become the first transfer from catholic to multi-denominational. The schools will implement programs to encompass and include different beliefs and values.
The participation of children with special education needs has increased in the education system. Ireland wants to provide an education system that supports their participation and advancement to ensure they can reach their full potential. It is essential that schools have policies in place to deal with any difficulties of the students.
To maintain the quality and performance of all levels of the education system and to face the work world, to keep up with the changing world, the education and training system will play a key role in meeting existing and emerging skill needs by providing education, training, and skill development opportunities for those entering the workforce, as well as ongoing upskilling and retraining of existing labour market participants.
How did Ireland face the educational issues during covid-19 in 2020
According to a UN report, nearly 190 countries have imposed school closures, affecting 1.5 billion children and young people. As so, students had to start to adopt new learning, “learning from home education,” and teachers and educators had to change their way of teaching. The UNESCO Director-General Audrey Azoulay guaranteed that United Nations was providing aid to adapt to this situation, especially since they were working with countries to ensure the continuity of learning for everybody, particularly disadvantaged children and youth who tend to be the hardest hit by school closures.
During the Covid-19 pandemic, 94% of students said they used a combination of textbooks and digital tools. Many students (79%) indicated no difficulties had been experienced, and if they had, the issues would have been addressed promptly. Most young people completed their assignments and received the teacher’s feedback.
Even if a lot of children and adolescents attend Catholic Schools, a growing number of people do not practice the religion and may attend Christenings and Communions just because it is part of Irish culture rather than having any genuine belief in the practice, even though the majority of schools in Ireland are Catholic schools. Nearly 80% of the population describes their religion as Catholic, according to the 2016 Census.
Religious practicians and committed students feel vulnerable as they are a minority in Irish schools now.
To avoid this problem, Irish schools must have a code of behaviour and a specific educational program and procedures that together form the school’s plan to help students in the school to behave well and learn well. Also, school support teams will be available to help students experiencing bullying, and all the staff will be trained as part of the new action plan.
Disadvantaged people in Ireland
Despite having the fastest-growing economy in Europe, poverty levels in Ireland are stable. Children are more likely than the overall population to experience ongoing poverty. More than 62,000 children live in persistent poverty, and others are in danger of poverty. One in five parents do not have enough food to feed their children. Children who travel a lot, like the Roman children, are particularly vulnerable. The term “Roma” is used by the Council of Europe to refer to Roma, Sinti, Kale and related groups in Europe, including Travellers and the Eastern groups, like Dom and Lom, and covers the wide diversity of the groups concerned, including persons who identify themselves as “Gypsies”.
Source: CSO Ireland.
From statistical data 2016, 2 % of 10-year-olds in Ireland cannot read and understand a simple text by the end of primary school. Those in rural areas are potentially negatively affected by difficulty in maintaining involvement in education or accessing facilities.
Educational disadvantages are often related to socio-economic factors, for example, inadequate income, poor housing, health or family problems. Children who have been born into poor households or live in deprived areas are most subject to educational failure and subsequent labour market exclusion. Young people who experience social disadvantage are at a higher risk of being exposed to factors that impact their opportunity to progress successfully through first and second-level education.
Conclusions and recommendations
Ireland’s education system has shown significant strengths and achievements while facing challenges. The country is firmly committed to providing quality education to its citizens, evident through its well-structured and accessible education infrastructure. Ireland’s emphasis on early childhood education, investments in technology, and dedication to inclusivity have contributed to a positive learning environment for students of various ages and backgrounds.
The education system has many merits, but some areas can be improved to enhance its overall effectiveness:
Ireland should invest more than it does in education, particularly at the primary and secondary levels; this is crucial to maintaining high-quality teaching standards and facilities. Adequate funding will ensure all schools have the necessary resources to support students’ learning needs.
Despite progress, educational disparities persist in some regions and among specific demographics. The government should focus on narrowing these gaps by implementing targeted interventions, such as improved access to resources and specialized support for disadvantaged communities.
Continuous professional development for educators is essential to keep up with evolving teaching methodologies and technologies. Encouraging and providing opportunities for teachers to enhance their skills will benefit the student’s learning experience. As the education landscape becomes increasingly demanding, prioritizing mental health support services for students, parents, and educators is vital; creating a positive and supportive learning environment will help students thrive academically and emotionally.
References
Aonghus Ó hEochaidh, 2020, Challenges to inclusive education in Irish schools, https://muinteoiraonghus.wordpress.com.
Income and Living Conditions (SILC), 2021, Poverty and deprivation, https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/psilc/surveyonincomeandlivingconditionssilc2020/ povertyanddeprivation.
Council of Europe, 2021, Roma children, www.coe.int.
Dimitri O’Donnell, 2022, New database to help prevent bullying in schools, RTÉ News.
Government of Ireland, 2023, Education Indicators for Ireland, Department of Education and the Department of Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science.
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The social situation in Chad has never remained the same since the passing of the Corona Virus Pandemic at the end of the year 2019. The Chadian population has been experiencing various social difficulties leaving families to their own faith (UNICEF, 2023). In fact, parents have seen their households’ and loved ones’ basic needs consistently overlooked and denied as time went by. These basic needs inclusively concern safety, shelter, food, proper healthcare, and basic education following the reports made by UNICEF (2023).
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2022) affirms that the socio-economic situation and political instability play a significant role in the current condition. The challenge regarding Chad’s education sector has persisted for more than four years. It has been proven that seven in ten children aged 18 years and younger do not have access to any schools or learning facilities in Chad (World Bank, 2022 & UNHCR, 2022). The UNHCR (2022) additionally attests that the perpetration of armed conflicts in the Lake Chad Basin has been contributing highly to the worsening of the education condition in Chad. This is because it restrains any humanitarian aid that may come from both local or international organisations due to the lack of security in the surrounding environments.
Assidick Choroma, Minister of National Education and Civic Promotion of Chad, and Alice Albright, GPE CEO, met students and teachers at the Lycée-Collège féminin bilingue d’Amruguebe school for girls in N’Djamena. The school welcomes 1500 girls and has 80 teachers, including 30 women. It provides education in Arabic and in French. Chad, February 2019 Photo by: GPE/Carine Durand
Consequently, 1.4 million children lack basic educational assistance while 360 000 struggle to access social protection services (OCHA, 2022). More than fifty per cent of children are incapable of accessing primary school education (INSEED & UNICEF, 2019). These statistics have been confirmed by the Humanitarian Needs Overview (2022), which attests that the number of children who need educational support increased by 8% in 2022. Although the conditions are not met, UNICEF has been making considerable efforts toward promoting and providing 85,600 formal and non-formal opportunities (UNICEF, 2023). This is being implemented through and with the help of the Chadian government’s local and national support coordination.
These efforts have resulted in the continuous educational support of 120,437 children, including girls, who represent 43% of the beneficiaries, according to UNICEF (2022). This was the result of both on-site and remote intensive learning programmes, schools’ rehabilitations, and some psychosocial support provided to children with disabilities. The World Bank equally joined hands in contributing to upgrading learning facilities and conditions in Chad. This is being achieved through various development programmes that benefit the school’s pedagogical and managerial staff for a period of five years (World Bank, 2022).
Research attests that the Jesuit Refugee Service (JRS) has evenly partaken in providing massive and continuous school attendance in various refugee camps in Chad. This endeavour is made regardless of the minimal financial and logistical support. UNESCO partially contributed to this cause through its involvement in the improvement of conditions in both existing and new formal and non-formal teaching and learning facilities. UNESCO thus set up two successful emergency development projects destined to upgrade the quality of the educational sector in a bid to minimise drop-outs and child marriage and labour. These projects are known as PREAT and PUREAT because they both plan and organise the implementation of ideas into practical actions (PREAT, 2019-2023 & PUREAT, 2021-2023). These projects have been involved in the translation of teaching documents from French into both Chadian Arabic and Sar, which are the popular languages spoken in the country.
The concerned projects have been working progressively well so far as they have allowed teachers to use national languages to favour pupils’ teaching process. Consequently, young and older pupils unable to understand or speak French may still have access to learning facilities and knowledge ((PREAT, 2019-2023 & PUREAT, 2021-2023). This strategy has proven to have increased the number of literates in both formal and non-formal educational facilities in the concerned country in accordance with the projects’ reports.
Quality education is the key Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) among all SDGs and thus constitutes a crucial sector in realising the remaining goals (Katalay et at., 2022). In fact, SDG 4 secures the inclusivity and equity of quality education for each and every child. This is because, being born equal, every child has got the universal right to education regardless of their origins, colour of skin, religious beliefs, family backgrounds, age frame, or gender. Access to quality education has been revealed to be a vital pattern in individuals’ lifelong self-actualisation and poverty reduction all over the World (Katalay et al., 2022).
Katalay et at. (2022) carried out qualitative research that reviewed the educational challenges faced at different levels of understanding: global, continental, and local. Its results have indeed affirmed that the availability of quality learning facilities and affordable school fees were patterns in the increased school attendance rate in various African counties. Building affordable quality schools and vocational training centres in Chad may thus encourage parents and guardians to send their loved ones to acquire knowledge (Katalay et al., 2022). Research shows that education truly allows every citizen of a given nationality to be an added hand in both the socio-economic and political developments of their respective environments. This confirms that it is only through education that the remaining SDGs may be achieved in Chad (Katalay et al., 2022 & UNICEF, 2023).
Some research attested that individuals with low or without formal education or training are exposed to real-life struggles to provide basic needs in Africa (Katalay et al., 2022). This explains why the educated have more chances of finding employment than the less or non-educated. The knowledge of those who are educated guarantees them access to various employment opportunities within their areas of specialisation. Schools and vocational training centres will equip individuals with some required skills and knowledge that will enable them to get various well-paid jobs and provide basic needs at home.
This is to say that less or non-educated individuals are more exposed to a lack of employment opportunities and thus incapable of providing for their families and loved ones. This is because their resources will be limited, and so will their access to various basic needs. These needs include the daily provision of shelter, food, proper healthcare, and education. In light of this, education seems to be the crucial element that provides the Chadian government with capacities to fully participate and contribute to improving their social services. Improving these services would consistently and continuously make the lives of as many individuals as possible better and worth living (Katalay et al., 2022 & UNESCO, 2023).
Additionally, inclusive education for both men and women has proven to play a crucial role in abolishing various sociocultural mindsets and practices (Katalay et al., 2022). These involve female children being denied access to education, female genital mutilation (FGM), gender inequality in workplaces, women being abused, and child marriage and labour. Reports have revealed that poverty is the cause and consequence of the daily perpetration of social vices and inequalities in Chad (OCHA, 2021).
Poverty limits access to education, standard shelter, food, healthcare, clean water, constant electricity, and sanitary facilities as it increases the number of refugees. Inversely, all these social problems joined together seem to be partaking in upgrading the poverty level in many African countries, including Chad (World Food Program, 2023).
Research has shown that the poverty level in the African continent, in general, and in Chad, in particular, has been the cause of the stagnant situation of the education sector. This is because the lack of security and peace in various neighbouring countries has aggravated and increased the number of refugees in Chad. This makes the situation more difficult to handle since Chad has already been struggling to provide essential social services for its citizens. In addition, the security or safety around Lake Chad has not been helping the current situation due to the danger to which both the population and humanitarian organisations are exposed. Six in ten parents have expressed their fear of sending their children to schools or vocational training centres, given the low-security measures taken in their surrounding environments.
In conclusion, several factors have recently been worsening the quality development of the education sector in Chad. It has been proven that socio-economic and political instabilities have contributed highly to the poverty level in multiple sectors. This situation has been affecting nearly half of the Chadian population. The downgrading of the education sector in Chad has left families and households in a daily dilemma consisting of either providing food or sending their children to schools and centres. This explains why individuals in the country have limited access to other basic social human needs. These limited or lack of basic human needs leave parents and children denied a roof over their heads, food, clean water, electricity, health treatment, and basic education.
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