राष्ट्रीय और अंतर्राष्ट्रीय दोनों मानवाधिकार मानकों का पालन करने के लिए, दक्षिण अफ्रीका को अपने शैक्षिक क्षेत्र में कई बाधाओं का सामना करना होगा। यह लेख देश में कुछ सबसे प्रचलित शैक्षिक चुनौतियों को प्रस्तुत करेगा।
आधारभूत संरचना
आज शैक्षिक क्षेत्र में मुख्य समस्याओं में से एक छात्रों के लिए उपलब्ध सुविधाएं हैं। यह अत्यंत महत्वपूर्ण है कि स्कूलों में ऐसी सुविधाएं शामिल हैं जो बच्चों के लिए सुरक्षित हैं, और छात्रों के लिए उनकी शिक्षा को आगे बढ़ाने के लिए आवश्यक उपकरण हैं। 2013 में समान शिक्षा (ईई, 2016) के अनुसार, बुनियादी शिक्षा मंत्री एंजी मोंटशेगका ने देश भर के स्कूलों को कम से कम पानी, बिजली, इंटरनेट, कक्षा में 40 छात्रों के साथ सुरक्षित कक्षाओं के लिए बाध्य करने वाले कानून को स्वीकार किया, सुरक्षा, और विभिन्न खेलों के अध्ययन और अभ्यास के लिए आवश्यक सुविधाएं। हालांकि, लक्ष्य 2016 के लिए निर्धारित किया गया था, आज, कई स्कूलों में खराब इंटरनेट कनेक्शन की तुलना में कहीं अधिक समस्याएं हैं। देश निर्धारित लक्ष्यों को पूरा करने की ओर देख रहा है, लेकिन अभी भी एक लंबा रास्ता तय करना है। कई लेख खराब सुविधा बुनियादी ढांचे के कारण शिक्षार्थियों की मौत की सूचना पर प्रकाश डालते हैं। इसके अतिरिक्त, स्कूलों की अपर्याप्त स्वच्छता एक ऐसा मुद्दा है जो छात्रों के स्वास्थ्य को प्रभावित करता है। इसका एक उदाहरण उनके शौचालयों और गड्ढे वाले शौचालयों में देखा जाता है, जहां छात्रों को उनकी अनुचित स्वच्छता के कारण स्वास्थ्य संबंधी समस्याओं का खतरा होता है। ये बाधाएं छात्रों को उनकी शिक्षा और विकास पर ध्यान केंद्रित करने से रोकती हैं।
शिक्षा में असमानता
दक्षिण अफ्रीकी स्कूलों में असमानता काफी हद तक दिखाई देती है। एमनेस्टी इंटरनेशनल के अनुसार, शीर्ष 200 स्कूलों के बच्चे गणित में अन्य 6,600 स्कूलों के बच्चों की तुलना में अधिक अंक प्राप्त करते हैं। अन्य आंकड़े बताते हैं कि नौ साल के 75% से अधिक बच्चे अर्थ के लिए नहीं पढ़ सकते हैं। कुछ प्रांतों में यह प्रतिशत 91% तक है। शिक्षा प्रणाली अभी भी रंगभेद युग से ठीक हो रही है, जिसके परिणामस्वरूप बच्चों को उनकी पृष्ठभूमि, धन या त्वचा के रंग के कारण अलग तरह से व्यवहार किया जाता है। दक्षिण अफ्रीका में प्राथमिक शिक्षा की गुणवत्ता, यूनेस्को की एक रिपोर्ट में कहा गया है कि सैद्धांतिक रूप से, देश में सभी बच्चों की शिक्षा के तीन स्तरों तक समान पहुंच है। हालांकि, कम आय वाले समुदायों के छात्रों को स्कूली शिक्षा देने वाले कई संस्थान अपने द्वारा प्रदान की जाने वाली शिक्षा की गुणवत्ता में सुधार करने में विफल रहे हैं। सरकार को गरीबी और शिक्षा की समस्या से निपटना चाहिए।
खराब शिक्षा
इसके अलावा, स्कूलों की शिक्षा की गुणवत्ता दक्षिण अफ्रीका में एक प्रचलित मुद्दा है। 2021 में गुस्ताफसन द्वारा किए गए शोध के अनुसार, दक्षिण अफ्रीका में शिक्षकों की सेवानिवृत्ति 2030 तक चरम पर पहुंच जाएगी, जिसके परिणामस्वरूप नए प्रशिक्षित शिक्षकों और कक्षाओं और संस्थानों के पुनर्गठन की आवश्यकता होगी। वर्तमान में, आधी कक्षाओं में प्रति कक्षा 30 छात्र हैं, लेकिन अन्य 50% एक कक्षा में 50 बच्चों से अधिक हो सकते हैं। संख्या को कम करने के लिए, यह अनुमान है कि लगभग 100,000 नए शिक्षक शैक्षिक प्रणाली में प्रवेश करते हैं, जिसके लिए बड़े पैमाने पर प्रशिक्षण और वित्तपोषण की आवश्यकता होती है।
एक और चुनौती जो आज दक्षिण अफ्रीका में शैक्षिक क्षेत्र के सामने है, वह है प्रशिक्षकों की गुणवत्ता। वर्तमान शिक्षकों में से 5,000 से अधिक अपने पेशे के लिए अयोग्य हैं। नौकरी के बाजार में प्रशिक्षक प्रतिस्पर्धी नहीं हैं; उन्हें पाठ्यक्रम की बहुत कम समझ है और कोई शैक्षणिक योग्यता नहीं है, जिसके कारण छात्रों को आवश्यक ज्ञान के बिना स्कूल से स्नातक होना पड़ता है।
निरक्षरता का चक्र
अंत में, 2019 से ओईसीडी की रिपोर्ट के अनुसार, दक्षिण अफ्रीका में एनईईटी क्षेत्र (न तो रोजगार और न ही शिक्षा) में 20 से 24 वर्ष की आयु के लोगों की हिस्सेदारी सबसे अधिक है। दक्षिण अफ्रीका ने इस मानदंड पर लगभग 50% स्कोर किया, ओईसीडी रिपोर्ट द्वारा जांचे गए सभी देशों में सबसे बड़ा। प्रोफेसर खुलुवे की 2021 की रिपोर्ट में निरक्षरता की समस्या की गंभीरता पर चर्चा की गई है, जिसमें कहा गया है कि 2019 में, निरक्षर वयस्कों की दर (20 वर्ष से अधिक आयु) ) 12,1% या लगभग 4,4 मिलियन थी। यह आबादी के एक बड़े हिस्से के बराबर है जो 7वीं कक्षा या उच्च स्तर की शिक्षा प्राप्त नहीं कर रहा है। निरक्षरता अशिक्षित संतानों और समाज के लिए गैर-योगदान सहित जनसंख्या के लिए दूरगामी परिणाम प्रस्तुत करती है, इस प्रकार देश की अर्थव्यवस्था को नुकसान पहुंचाती है। दक्षिण अफ्रीका को इस मुद्दे से निपटने और जहां तक संभव हो निरक्षरता के प्रतिशत को कम करने की जरूरत है।
Per rispettare gli standard nazionali e internazionali in materia di diritti umani, il Sudafrica deve affrontare diversi ostacoli nella sua sfera educativa. Questo articolo presenterà alcune delle sfide educative più diffuse nel Paese.
Infrastrutture
Uno dei problemi principali del settore educativo oggi è rappresentato dalle strutture a disposizione degli studenti. È di fondamentale importanza che le scuole includano strutture sicure e protette per i bambini e le attrezzature necessarie agli studenti per proseguire la loro istruzione. Secondo Equal Education (EE, 2016), nel 2013 il ministro dell’Istruzione di base, Angie Montshegka, ha accettato una legge che obbliga le scuole di tutto il Paese a disporre almeno di acqua, elettricità, internet, aule sicure con un massimo di 40 studenti in classe, sicurezza e le strutture necessarie per studiare e praticare diversi sport. Sebbene l’obiettivo sia stato fissato per il 2016, oggi molte scuole hanno problemi ben più gravi di una cattiva connessione a Internet. Il Paese sta cercando di raggiungere gli obiettivi prefissati, ma la strada da percorrere è ancora lunga. Numerosi articoli evidenziano i casi di morte di studenti a causa di infrastrutture inadeguate. Inoltre, le carenze igieniche delle scuole sono un problema che influisce sulla salute degli studenti. Un esempio è dato dai servizi igienici e dalle latrine a fossa, dove gli studenti sono a rischio di problemi di salute a causa dell’igiene inadeguata. Questi ostacoli impediscono agli studenti di concentrarsi sull’istruzione e sullo sviluppo.
Disuguaglianza nell’istruzione
Le disuguaglianze sono ampiamente visibili nelle scuole sudafricane. Secondo Amnesty International, i bambini delle prime 200 scuole ottengono punteggi più alti in matematica rispetto ai bambini delle altre 6.600 scuole. Altre statistiche evidenziano che oltre il 75% dei bambini di nove anni non è in grado di leggere in modo significativo. In alcune province, la percentuale raggiunge il 91%. Il sistema educativo si sta ancora riprendendo dall’era dell’Apartheid, con il risultato che i bambini vengono trattati in modo diverso a causa della loro provenienza, della ricchezza o del colore della pelle. The Quality of Primary Education in South Africa, un rapporto dell’UNESCO, afferma che, in teoria, tutti i bambini hanno uguale accesso ai tre livelli di istruzione del Paese. Tuttavia, molti istituti che ospitano studenti provenienti da comunità a basso reddito non sono riusciti a migliorare la qualità dell’istruzione impartita. Il governo deve affrontare il problema della povertà e dell’istruzione.
Istruzione scadente
Inoltre, la qualità dell’istruzione scolastica è un problema prevalente in Sudafrica. Secondo una ricerca condotta da Gustafsson nel 2021, il pensionamento degli insegnanti in Sudafrica raggiungerà il picco massimo entro il 2030, il che comporterà di conseguenza la necessità di nuovi educatori formati e la ristrutturazione di classi e istituti. Attualmente, la metà delle classi ha 30 studenti per classe, ma il restante 50% può superare i 50 bambini in una classe. Per ridurre il numero, si stima che circa 100.000 nuovi insegnanti entrino nel sistema educativo, il che richiede formazione e finanziamenti su larga scala.
Un’altra sfida che il settore educativo sudafricano deve affrontare oggi è la qualità degli insegnanti. Oltre 5.000 degli attuali insegnanti non sono qualificati per la loro professione. Gli insegnanti non sono competitivi sul mercato del lavoro; hanno una scarsa comprensione dei programmi di studio e nessuna competenza pedagogica, il che porta gli studenti a diplomarsi senza le conoscenze necessarie.
Ciclo di analfabetismo
Infine, secondo il rapporto OCSE del 2019, il Sudafrica ha la più alta percentuale di persone di età compresa tra i 20 e i 24 anni nel settore NEET (né occupazione né istruzione). Il Sudafrica ha ottenuto un punteggio di quasi il 50% su questo criterio, il più alto tra tutti i Paesi esaminati dal rapporto dell’OCSE. Il rapporto 2021 del professor Khuluvhe parla della gravità del problema dell’analfabetismo, affermando che, nel 2019, il tasso di adulti analfabeti (di età superiore ai 20 anni) era del 12,1%, ovvero circa 4,4 milioni. Ciò equivale a una parte considerevole della popolazione che non ha raggiunto un livello di istruzione di 7° grado o superiore. L’analfabetismo comporta conseguenze di vasta portata per la popolazione, tra cui una prole non istruita e il mancato contributo alla società, danneggiando così l’economia del Paese. Il Sudafrica deve affrontare questo problema e ridurre il più possibile la percentuale di analfabetismo.
Para cumplir con las normas nacionales e internacionales de derechos humanos, Sudáfrica debe hacer frente a varios problemas en su ámbito educativo. Este artículo presentará algunos de los desafíos educativos más prevalentes del país.
Infraestructura
Uno de los problemas principales del sector educativo de Sudáfrica es la infraestructura. Las facilidades de las que disponen los estudiantes son inadecuadas a las necesidades de estos. Es de suma importancia que las escuelas incluyan instalaciones que sean seguras para los niños y el equipo necesario para que los estudiantes puedan continuar la educación. Según Equal Education (EE, 2016) de 2013, la Ministra de Educación Básica, Angie Montshegka, aceptó una ley que obligaba a las escuelas de todo el país a tener como mínimo agua, luz, internet, aulas seguras con hasta 40 alumnos por clase, seguridad, y las instalaciones necesarias para estudiar y practicar una variedad de deportes. Aunque el objetivo se fijó para 2016, hoy en día muchas escuelas cuentan con problemas mucho mayores que una mala conexión a Internet. El país mira hacia el cumplimiento de las metas trazadas, pero aún queda un largo camino por recorrer. Numerosos artículos destacan las muertes reportadas de estudiantes debido a la mala infraestructura de las instalaciones. Adicionalmente, el saneamiento inadecuado de las escuelas es un problema que afecta la salud de los estudiantes. Un ejemplo de esto se ve en sus baños y letrinas de pozo, donde los estudiantes corren el riesgo de tener problemas de salud debido a su higiene inadecuada. Estos obstáculos impiden que los estudiantes se concentren en su educación y desarrollo.
Desigualdad en la educación
La desigualdad es notoriamente visible en las escuelas sudafricanas. Según Amnesty International, los niños educados en las 200 mejores escuelas obtienen mejores calificaciones en matemáticas que los niños de las otras 6,600 escuelas. Otras estadísticas destacan que más del 75% de los niños de nueve años no tienen niveles suficientes de comprensión lectora. En algunas provincias, este porcentaje alcanza el 91%. El sistema educativo aún se está recuperando de la era del Apartheid, lo que hace que los niños reciban un trato diferente debido a su origen, riqueza o tono de piel. La Calidad de la Educación Primaria en Sudáfrica, un informe de la UNESCO, establece que, en teoría, todos los niños tienen el mismo acceso a los tres niveles de educación en el país. Sin embargo, muchas de las instituciones que educan a estudiantes de comunidades de bajos ingresos no han logrado mejorar la calidad de la educación que brindan. El gobierno debe abordar los problemas de la pobreza y la educación, pues son problemas directamente conectados.
Mala educación
La calidad educativa que ofrecen las escuelas en Sudáfrica es otro de los problemas más prevalentes en este sector. Según una investigación realizada por Gustafsson en 2021, la jubilación de docentes en Sudáfrica alcanzará niveles máximos en el año 2030, lo que, consecuentemente, resultará en la necesidad de establecer un nuevo profesorado y una reestructuración de aulas e instituciones. Actualmente, la mitad de las clases tienen 30 alumnos por clase, pero el otro 50% puede superar hasta los 50 niños por clase. Para reducir las cifras, se estima que alrededor de 100,000 nuevos docentes deberán integrarse en el sistema educativo, lo que requiere capacitación y financiamiento a gran escala.
Otro desafío que enfrenta el sector educativo en Sudáfrica hoy en día es la calidad de los instructores. Más de 5,000 de los profesores actuales no están lo suficientemente capacitados para su profesión. Los instructores no son competitivos en el mercado laboral; tienen poca comprensión de los planes de estudios y ninguna competencia pedagógica, lo que hace que los estudiantes se gradúen de la escuela sin los conocimientos necesarios.
Ciclo del analfabetismo
Finalmente, según el informe de la OCDE de 2019, Sudáfrica tiene la mayor proporción de personas de entre 20 y 24 años en el sector NINI (ni trabajo ni educación). Sudáfrica obtuvo casi el 50% en este criterio, el mayor de todos los países examinados por el informe de la OCDE. El informe de 2021 del profesor Khuluvhe analiza la gravedad del problema del analfabetismo y afirma que, en 2019, la tasa de adultos analfabetos (mayores de 20 años) era del 12,1%, o alrededor de 4,4 millones. Esto equivale a que una parte considerable de la población no haya alcanzado un nivel superior de educación. El analfabetismo tiene consecuencias de gran alcance para la población, incluida la descendencia sin educación y la falta de contribución a la sociedad, lo que perjudica la economía del país. Sudáfrica necesita hacer frente a este problema y minimizar el porcentaje de analfabetismo lo máximo posible.
Panama is a country in Central America with a population of approximately 4.2 million people in 2020 (Puertas et al. 2023). Panama has a Human Development Index of 0.815 due to widespread socioeconomic inequality, especially among the country’s indigenous population (ibid.).
The Panamanian education system is divided into different stages: preschool; primary school; pre-secondary school and secondary school. Education is free until middle school (The Oxford Business Group 2023). Despite recent progress in children’s access to education, Panama’s educational system is still facing grave challenges, especially as the quality of the country’s education continues to lag (The Oxford Business Group 2023; UNICEF 2021). There are still great disparities in dropout rates between rural and urban areas, and the number and professional qualification of teachers remains unsatisfactory (The Oxford Business Group 2023). The state budget for education continues to be disappointing (Herrera et al. 2018). In 2020, the Panamanian government only invested 3.9 percent of its GDP in education (Trading Economics 2023). Currently 17.2% of children aged between 15 and 24 are not enrolled in education or employment, entailing that many adolescents lack access to education and to the necessary skills to find an employment (Unicef 2020).
This report highlights educational challenges that Panama is facing at the moment; namely, the lack of quality education and infrastructure, and inequalities in access to education that affect especially rural and indigenous communities. The report concludes with recommendations to improve the Panamanian educational system.
The quality of education in Panama continues to fall behind (UNESCO 2020). There are not sufficient services at schools to ensure quality education for students, especially in rural and indigenous communities (UNICEF 2021). To illustrate, approximately 30 percent of children do not have access to preschool education (UNICEF 2021). Also, educational infrastructure is deteriorating due to poor maintenance (Herrera et al. 2018). The lack of capacity to accommodate students has led to the introduction of the two-shift school day to optimize school infrastructure (The Oxford Business Group 2023). This strategy entails that one shift of students attends school during the morning, while another shift attends school in the afternoon. However, this has hampered the development of students’ basic skills. The physical infrastructure of schools in rural areas is lower than in urban schools (Unesco 2020). Rural schools face major infrastructure challenges: there is a lack of infrastructure to accommodate the local demand for school; this results in children dropping out of school or forces children to walk for long distances to access their schools. Also, compared to schools in urban centers, schools in rural areas often lack the necessary learning materials, such as textbooks and notebooks (Unesco 2020).
Moreover, the educational style remains old-fashioned, as the curriculum is still based on memorizing concepts rather than developing key competencies and developing skills important for students’ future employability (UNICEF 2021). The lack of enforcement of a bilingual curriculum and, therefore, the lack of proficiency in English has negatively affected students’ preparedness for the labor market, especially in the sector of tourism. As a response, the government implemented a Bilingual Program in 2015, to improve basic and secondary teachers’ proficiency in English (The Oxford Business Group 2023). Furthermore, schools lack a clear approach to teaching in schools in indigenous communities, which compromises the quality of education for students with an indigenous background. In fact, many teachers teaching in schools in indigenous communities follow non-inclusive educational practices (Unesco 2020). For example, non-indigenous teachers often do not allow students to speak in indigenous languages among themselves, creating tensions in the classroom environment and the current bilingual curriculum fails to include indigenous languages (Unesco 2020).
Inequalities in Access to Education
According to UNICEF, 3 out of 10 children are affected by multidimensional poverty in Panama (UNICEF 2022). Children living in poverty and children with an indigenous background lack access to quality services (UNICEF 2022). Although preschool education is compulsory, approximately 40 percent of children aged between 4 to 5 years do not attend preschool (UNICEF 2020). Ensuring children’s access to preschool education is essential since the level of oral language kindergarten can have a great impact on a child’s learning outcomes through primary school in reading and writing, as well as mathematics (Puertas et al. 2023). The educational system also does not reach all adolescents to the same extent: only 7 in 10 children aged between 12 and 14 years were enrolled in pre-secondary school before Covid-19, while only 5 in 10 adolescents between 15 and 17 years were enrolled in high school (UNICEF 2020). Consequently, only 35 percent of students reached the minimum proficiency levels for literacy according to the Sustainable Development Goals (UNICEF 2020). Also, 19 percent of boys and 16 percent of girls in pre-secondary schools are overaged; this fact points that unsatisfactory learning leads to school dropout, curtailing the possibility for young adults to acquire the necessary skills for future employability (UNICEF 2020).
Inequalities greatly affect children with indigenous backgrounds, as indigenous children display lower achievement in literacy and numeracy rates. The indigenous population in Panama mostly lives in rural areas, where the supply of schools is substantially lower, compared to urban areas (Unesco 2020). To illustrate, adolescent girls from indigenous communities are more likely to be excluded from access to education and to complete secondary education and 1 in 10 children from rural areas are more likely to not be enrolled in school (UNICEF 2021; Unesco 2020). The literacy rate for women from indigenous backgrounds between 15 and 24 years of age is 84 percent, which is lower than the national average (97 percent) (Unesco 2020). Also, schools in indigenous communities have poorer infrastructure and lower school attainment. Violence, including abandonment, or neglect, currently affects 44.5 percent of children, and indigenous girls show higher vulnerability to violence (UNICEF 2020). Children with disabilities also face exclusion in access to education as 1 in 4 children with disabilities does not attend school (UNICEF 2021).
Students’ reading performance greatly decreased after Covid especially due to inequality (Puertas et al. 2023). At the end of 2020, only 51 percent of children in primary schools and 42 percent of high school students could read proficiently (Puerta et al. 2023). A large portion of the population does not have access to internet from home or electricity. In fact, only 40 percent of households with children in public schools have internet access (Puertas et al. 2023). During the Covid lockdow, children from higher-income households could use online platforms, such as Microsoft Teams, to engage with their teachers; however, students in lower-income households often only had WhatsApp as a means of communication with their teachers. Consequently, thousands of students were at risk of dropping out of school during this period (UNICEF 2022).
This report highlights that the major educational challenges in Panama lie in the lack of appropriate infrastructure to ensure that students have access to quality education and social inequality that hinders students from achieving satisfactory educational outcomes. Education is an essential mechanism for development. Thus, the government of Panama must commit to expanding the current budget for education to improve schools’ physical infrastructure and quality to ensure that its population can access the necessary skills and increase its capabilities. Also, it is essential to continue investing in teachers’ capacity building to improve the quality of teaching and develop a curriculum that enables students to develop essential skills for the job market.
The government should also prioritize children from indigenous communities to close the current gap in unequal access to education. The government should invest more in schools in indigenous communities to improve learning outcomes in reading and mathematics among primary school and high school students. This is only possible through the implementation of inclusive policies that take into consideration students’ educational needs and recognize the disproportional exclusion of children with indigenous background from accessing quality education. Ensuring that students with an indigenous background have access to quality education is essential to prevent students from dropping out of school and from being further marginalized from society.
References
Cubilla-Bonnetier, D., Grajales-Barrios, M., Ortega-Espinosa, A., Puertas, L. and De León Sautú, N. (2023). “Unequal literacy development and access to online education in public versus private Panamanian schools during COVID-19 pandemic”. In Frontiers in Education (Vol. 8, p. 989872). Frontiers.
Herrera M, L.C., Torres-Lista, V. and Montenegro, M. (2018). Analysis of the State Budget for Education of the Republic of Panama from 1990 to 2017. International Education Studies, 11(7), pp.71-82.
Hong Kong’s education system has undergone various influences. The colonization period by the British Empire after the Opium War introduced the English language as the medium of instruction (EMI). The four years of Japanese occupation transformed Hong Kong into the centre of international trade and further emerged as the centre of industry, business, and finance during the period between 1945 and 1997. Consequently, the population increase rapidly with migrants moving from mainland China and other South Asian countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia. Shortage of teachers, unequal distribution of resources and differences in education opportunities were shortly followed as a result. Since the handover of Hong Kong to the People’s Republic of China, the promotion of Chinese-medium instruction (CMI) in the school system has been introduced, alongside an increase in learning the Chinese language (Putonghua known as Mandarin) and culture. New problems occurred with a change in language policies and education reform after 1971, the appealing form of education that meets the needs and abilities of Cantonese-speaking students in the Chinese cultural context neglected ethnic minority students in the Education system.
The problem with the education system in Hong Kong
The article further reveals the problem with Hong Kong’s education reform and the adoption of a new language policy since 1997. Given the background of Hong Kong’s diverse education system, different types of schools were introduced to support the cultural demand. There are three types of schools in Hong Kong recognized by the education bureau: Public local schools (aided schools) that are either operated by the government or by local charitable or religious organizations. Both adopted local curricula where Chinese lessons are mandatory for students, but they can be taught in either English or Chinese as a medium of instruction. However, education is provided free of charge only for Hong Kong permanent residents. Private schools that are not funded by the Hong Kong government or educational sector, provide students and parents with a language choice of English, Chinese/ English and Chinese; International schools on the other hand, have full autonomy in student admission, course content, tuition fees, and deliver curricula that are widely accepted in several countries, such as the International Baccalaureate program. It is a common choice for expatriate or English-speaking families living in Hong Kong.
As of today, the issue of education inequality exists through different schooling systems, portraying social stratification through education opportunities, gender perception and mobility. Further calls for segregation and racial discrimination in society, limiting students’ future career prospects. Thus, by outlining the cause of unequal educational opportunities in Hong Kong, a wide range of recognition is needed to raise public awareness of Hong Kong’s education system.
Inequalities in Education
Education inequality not only includes opportunities to receive education, teaching recourses, faculty expenses, and continuation in participation, but the process of sustaining education opportunities should be equally desirable and concluded in the term. The educational reform in 1971 promoting 6 years of free primary education and the nine-year of compulsory education since 1978 has remarkably increased citizens’ literacy rates and life expectancy. However, while an escalation in the diffusion of education can be seen, quality and education opportunities continue to grow a gap in different groups. For instance, the 6 years of free primary education only applies to Hong Kong permanent residents with a limited number of positions open due to insufficient teaching faculties. Hence, competition rises between government-funded primary and secondary schools. Those who did not get into public local schools choose private or international schools as an alternative. Nonetheless, the quality of education differs between different types of schools. Since private schools are profit-oriented, it is often found that the teaching qualities are lower compared to public schools and international schools. Results in students from public schools or international schools having a sense of superiority among other students, enhancing education differences via grouping and alienation based on different schools and curricula. Therefore, the current contradiction in Hong Kong’s educational reform helps some children move up but keeps others on lower tracks and socializes them to blame for their own lack of success to themselves.
On the other hand, Hong Kong’s colonial culture enforces the idea of the English language as a medium of Instruction that is more beneficial for the reason that it was presented as ‘high culture’ used by members of the dominant class. As an example, the children of high-level government servants were often exposed to situations where they have to interact with colonials through English. Accordingly, students from the dominant class are more likely to do well on examinations and graduate from upper secondary schools and go on to universities. Another social factor that contributed to this fraction is family background. It is evident that the higher the socioeconomic status of the student’s family, the higher his or her academic achievements would be. On that account, the stratification of students in different school systems prolonged the capitalist society into levels of hierarchy, where workers’ children will have lower expectations in their world-view compared to upper-level workers’ children, who will position themselves in a higher innovative position and have richer expectations of themselves. More importantly, due to an influx of migrants from the mainland after the Civil War, newly arrived children (NAC) were a large proportion of the education system. However, most NAC are deprived of fair access to equal opportunity in schooling in EMI schools for the reason that their English level was too weak, hence, they have a hard time catching up with the Hong Kongers. Prevails an averaging issue when they do not have the ability to move on to the next educational level.
Influence of education reform and policy change
The immediate problem after the education reform in 1971 is the increase in the number of enrolments. Nine years of compulsory education prompt a rise in schools and faculty demand. The government of Hong Kong heavily rely on opening new public schools and private schools to meet the requirement. However, due to the fact that there was never a consistent pedagogical education in the history of Hong Kong, not only there is a shortage of teaching staff, but stability in the quality of teaching is also questionable. Most teachers do not have any qualifications in teaching but merely obtained a graduate degree in secondary or college degree Moreover, it pours a great amount of stress on the teaching staff, generating mental health problems in the early stages of the reform. Despite this fact, starting from 1982 onwards, faculty training slowly begins to catch up, raising qualifications to become a teacher. While the problem begins to compromise, the new language policy after the handover in 1997 induces new challenges.
The adoption of the Chinese-oriented language policy in 1997 aimed to promote the national language in the education system under a Chinese cultural context. The majority of students are required to attend Chinese-medium schools in which English is taught as a language subject. Regarding ethnic minorities, which consist nearly 9% of Hong Kong’s population, it became harder to gain proper education in mainstream schools. On top of that, the system of designated schools, which were designated for ethnic minorities in primary and secondary education, was abolished in 2013 for the reason to boost the multicultural educational environment in Hong Kong. Chinese language learning opportunities in former designated schools were limited, therefore the abolishment act strengthens racial discrimination encountered by ethnic minorities. Considering all students in local schools must pass every Chinese examination to advance to the next grade, the lack of opportunity to study Chinese has deprived ethnic minorities of the chance to develop an interest in learning the Chinese language. While private and international schools could be an alternative for admissions, the average tuition fee of over HKD100,000 is hardly a reasonable choice for most parents and immigrant families. This subsequently leads to ethnic minorities being marginalized in the Hong Kong education curriculum. As a result, more young people from ethnic minorities were getting denied in mainstream schools and were getting involved in gangs, creating social segregation from a lack of education attainability.
Nevertheless, while language is becoming a barrier to reaching equal education opportunities, gender segregation has endured since the very beginning. Even though the six years of free primary education and the nine years of compulsory education have reduced family burden and influenced gender to raise education opportunities for women, family’s socioeconomic background and ‘gender segregation’ still manifest limitations for women to achieve equal academic recognition. The traditional gender value in terms of “men outside of the home, women inside” has modelled students’ gender cognition since they were young. After secondary education, gender segregation was enhanced from the subjects they choose. It is widely agreed upon in society that girls should study liberal arts, and boys should study science. The restriction of choices later on influences their advanced studies, career path and societal status. The recognition of their role was further strengthened through literature such as examples from their textbook, sexual division of labour at school, reinforcement of female quality as obedience, passive and quiet, and separation of gender in physical education classes. The stereotyping of gender roles and the unequal sexual structure in education enlarges academic achievement between men, women and third genders. Ignoring gender education as part of the curriculum, especially towards helping students to form their own self-image and realize their potential.
Recommendations for solutions
As an ending remark, the inequality in Hong Kong’s education system could be improved from three different aspects. To sustain the process of education opportunities provided to students, individual-level development is the keystone to the issue. Personal qualities, mutual understanding, humanitarianism and inclusivity should be addressed and respected in the system of teaching, learning and examination. On the curriculum level, more flexible language learning subjects should be adopted into the education structure. Provide ethnic minorities and newly arrived children with language support to give them equal chances in learning abilities. On top of that, neutralization in gender education is consequential to shorten the gap of gender segregation, and encourage equal opportunities for both girls and boys to find the subjects they desire and are passionate about. In addition to language and gender curriculum, recommendations on a structure level are essential, for instance, a more flexible public examination for the compulsory academic subjects, and diversity in teaching staff and faculty members are needed to approach social justice and equality.
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Evans, S. (2017) ‘Language policy in Hong Kong education: A historical overview’, European Journal of Language Policy, 9(1), pp. 67–84. doi:10.3828/ejlp.2017.5.
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Hung, J. et al. (2019) Racism in Hong Kong: The Failure of Race Discrimination Ordinance in Educational Settings, ippr.com. Available at: https://ippr-journal.com/2019/01/23/racism-in-hong-kong-the-failure-of-race-discrimination-ordinance-in-educational-settings-2/ (Accessed: 24 July 2023).
Stephen Evans et al. (2007) Why EAP is necessary: A survey of hong kong tertiary students, Journal of English for Academic Purposes. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1475158506000634 (Accessed: 24 July 2023).
Uphill struggle for Hong Kong’s ethnic minority to learn Chinese (2022) Young Post. Available at: https://www.scmp.com/yp/discover/news/hong-kong/article/3187252/hong-kongs-ethnic-minority-students-face-uphill-battle (Accessed: 24 July 2023).
From the financial crisis of 2008 to the Covid measures that moved education online, Greece has been faced with numerous challenges that increased the inequality in the education sector. In this article, we will dive into some of the most important ones.
Classes are back in person, after Covid. But challenges are still present.
Covid-19
According to the European Commission’s Education and Training Monitor, digital education is a priority in Greece. Like all countries, during Covid-19 Greece made efforts to move education online, but nevertheless encountered implementation and access issues.
Performances in subjects like math and science have declined, and socioeconomic background is a significant factor that impacts achievement levels. On a brighter note, higher education is beginning to be modernized, with changes in funding and quality assurance.
One important problem regarding education is the exclusion of disadvantaged students. This can happen due to many reasons, but during Covid, it was amplified by the lack of digital equipment: In 2018, one-fifth of students did not have a computer for school work. Moreover, not many students have above-average digital skills: only 32%, compared to the EU average of 57%. While Greece tried to improve its digital infrastructure, it still does not compare to any other EU countries. (Source: European Commission)
More statistics regarding Covid educational challenges:
90.6% of students had problems during distance education
53.1% didn’t have a proper internet connection.
45.8% had technical problems with platforms
(Source: European Commission)
Inequality
Inequality represents a fundamental problem in Greece’s educational system. For example, rural schools do far worse than urban schools on the PISA tests, and schools of students with a migrant background lag behind the ones with non-migrant students.
Another issue of inequality is the impact of socioeconomic background on educational performance. 46.4% of students from the lowest socio-economic quartile are underachievers in reading, for example, while students from the highest quartile do not face this problem as much.
In addition, migrants are facing challenges in integrating into the educational system, and many of them remain out of school.
Other issues
Issues like bullying and schools not having enough teachers further worsen the conditions of education in Greece. Children feeling safe in school is a prerequisitive for them being able to learn, and bullying often times makes pupils adopt a fearful attitude towards the educational space. Moreover, the lack of teachers creates staff and administrative problems.
Education is underfunded in Greece, especially at the university level. In 2018, Greece invested only 3.9% of its GDP in education, being one of the lowest values in the EU.
Financial crisis
The financial crisis of 2008 left significant marks on Greece’s economy – and this was also reflected in the education system. Greece’s education system became one of the most unequal systems in the developed world. Because the bailout agreements made during the crisis also forced public schools to impose spending cuts.
Private tuition
Another harmful practice that is happening in Greece is the normalization of expensive private tuition, according to BBC, students pay for private tutoring in order to pass the Panhellenic exams, the exams for getting into university.
This parallel education system of private classes is also called “frontistiria” and brings challenges for students from low socio-economical backgrounds, who cannot afford to pay for the expensive classes.
Education bills
Different legal issues also took place in the education sphere, like one student protest reported by the Guardian. Students protested in 2021 against an education bill that was supposed to create a special campus police force. Although this is not related to the quality of education, it shows the lack of consensus in education measures that are adopted in the country.
Final remarks
As such, based on reports from the EU Commission and UNICEF, Greece is facing multiple challenges regarding education. This is why fundamental reforms are needed, including more funding in the educational sector, investing in digital infrastructure, and getting rid of the private tuition market that disproportionately disadvantages people from lower economic backgrounds.
Educational Challenges in Mozambique is one of the major struggles that the country faces and the core issue that the majority of educational organizations locally have to deal with. Most of the time, this is due to an array of factors within the country, especially with Mozambique being a southern underdeveloped nation.
In 2008, more than two thirds of the labor force had either no education at all, or had not completed primary school. Mozambique is still behind its neighbors (and competitors) in educational achievement at all levels, therefore more will need to be done to ensure the country establishes a qualified labor force that can promote sustainable economic growth. Studies in Mozambique and other African nations found that households and workers with primary education were able to transition into non-farm activities, achieving a higher income and transforming their livelihoods in both rural and urban areas, but those without at least lower primary education were not (Moz Policy Note, 2012:2).
In summary, Mozambique faces several educational challenges, some of these challenges may include: limited access to education, low quality of education, poverty and inequality, limited resources and lack of relevant curriculum[i].
Mozambique has shown its commitment to education. It has abolished school fees, provided direct support to schools and free textbooks at the primary level, as well as made investments in classroom construction. The sector receives the highest share of the state budget, over 15 per cent. As a result, there has been a significant rise in primary school enrollment over the past decade. Yet quality and improvement in learning has lagged. Additionally, enrollment stagnates in upper primary and secondary despite increased provision. About 1.2 million children are out of school, the majority being girls, particularly in the secondary age group. The 2013 national learning assessment found that only 6.3 per cent of Grade 3 students had basic reading competencies. A 2014 World Bank survey showed that only 1 per cent of primary school teachers have the minimum expected knowledge, and only one in four teachers achieves two-digit subtraction. Absenteeism among teachers is high at 45 per cent, and directors at 44 per cent. About half of enrolled students are absent on any given day.
Another huge challenge is the lack of an early childhood learning service. Only an estimated 5 per cent of children between 3 and 5 years benefit from them, and most services are still located in urban areas (UNICEF).
Low quality of education
Most of underdeveloped African nations use bribery in almost all the public services like hospital, school, police services and migration as a direct result of scarcity.
In terms of quality of education, Mozambique has a high percentage in lack of educated teachers, with good skills such as pedagogical trainings. Due to scarcity and low salaries (barely enough to survive), in most of the high school and primary schools teachers, parents and educators use bribery in return for successful grades.
It costs US$116 (or US$58 per day) to provide a teacher with high-quality, two-day training on development of low-cost materials including transport, full boarding, tuition and all the materials[ii].
However, according to Sam Jones (2017)[iii] Mozambique, in common with many other developing countries, has achieved impressive increases in access to education. Since 2000, the number of children attending primary school has more than doubled, as have the number of schools. Enrollment into secondary school also has risen rapidly — in 2004, less than 8,000 young people graduated from secondary school (12a classe) in the whole country; by 2014, the number of graduates exceeded 50,000.
These trends are positive, but they only paint half the picture. The flip-side of access is whether children are learning once they are in school. The evidence here is patchy, but broadly suggests that Mozambique is lagging a long way behind many of its developing country peers in the quality, rather than the quantity, of education that it offers its children.
It is not difficult to grasp why the quality of schooling matters. Weak educational systems create burdens for both employers and workers. If educational certificates are not a good guide to the skills a person possesses, employers find it difficult to identify the suitable and qualified candidates. This can lead to higher turnover and costly recruitment processes. It can also lead employers to demand higher levels of education, even where the specific tasks of a job do not demand it. Today, technological change also is increasing the demand for skills — even labour-intensive manufacturing firms prefer better-educated workers who are able to operate equipment and follow production goals.
A major education challenge in Mozambique is to ensure that all children who start primary school go on to complete it. Data from the Ministry of Education and Human Resources suggests that in each grade of primary school, only around 80% of children go straight to the next grade. Although not all of these children drop out, the probability of a child who starts primary school completing the full seven years is less than 50%. So, many young Mozambicans are entering the labour market without having even completed a primary education.
But completing primary education does not mean young Mozambicans learn enough through schooling. This is revealed by a recent face-to-face survey of children in Nampula implemented by TPC Moçambique, part of Facilidade-ICDS (Instituto para Cidadania e Desenvolvimento Sustentável). The survey follows a model originally developed by Pratham in India, now used in many countries. The data from these surveys are not strictly comparable, but they are informative about broad differences.
Using the survey, Table 1 compares attainment in literacy and numeracy across a range of countries. In all cases, the competencies tested refer to skills taken from each country’s curriculum that should be mastered by children after completing two years of education. We see that there are many children attending grade 5 who do not master grade 2-level skills. In Nampula, the majority of children finishing in the first phase of primary school are not mastering the basics: less than 1 in 3 children in grade 5 can read a simple story and do basic subtraction. Moreover, attainments in Mozambique appear substantially below those of children in the same grade in other low-income countries.
Table 1: Share of children enrolled in grade 3 and grade 5 able to achieve specific competencie
Notes: table is adapted from Jones et al. (2014), adding data from TPC Moçambique (2017).
The worrying situation in Mozambique is echoed by a World Bank investigation of service quality in the education sector. As set out in the study by Bold et al. (2017), which compares results across various countries, only 38% of Mozambican 4th grade students were able to recognize letters, compared to 89% in Kenya and 50% in Nigeria. A possible reason for this situation is suggested — not only are many teachers absent from school and/or class — which means Mozambican pupils are receiving less than half the recommended four hours of teaching per day — but also, many teachers show a poor knowledge of the curriculum they are supposed to teach.
In addition, JICA (2015:25) makes a comparative analysis of access by group, where he points in both lower- and upper-primary education, that Maputo City, Nampula, Sofala, Niassa and Maputo Provinces have higher dropout rates than the national average. Repetition rates are higher in Tete, Sofala, Niassa, Nampula and Manica Provinces. Overall, northern and central provinces have higher dropout and repetition rates than the national average. In particular, repetition rates in Niassa Province are, in comparison to the national average, 4.4 point higher in lower-primary education and 5.1 point higher in upper-primary education.
Dropout rates by gender show that female dropout rates are 0.2 point higher than the male’s in both lower- and upper-primary education. Looking by province, female dropout rates in primary education are higher in Maputo City, Gaza, Inhambane and Maputo Provinces, suggesting that female students drop out more than their male counterparts in the southern parts of the country. On national average, female repetition rates are 0.3 point and 0.4 point higher than the male’s in lowerand upper-primary education, respectively. By province, all except Zambezia Province had higher female repetition rates.
The Mozambican government has paid special attention to gender in every sector’s planning stage in order to narrow the gender gap. In the education sector, girls’ education has been promoted from the first Education Strategic Plan, and PEEC 2006-2011 has also identified universal primary education—especially focusing on girls’ education—as a major target issue. Due to these governmental efforts, gender gap in primary education has almost been corrected (PEE 2012-2016, P.41-42[iv]).
Poverty and inequality
Poverty is a major barrier to education in Mozambique, as many families cannot afford to pay for school fees or related expenses such as uniforms and textbooks. In addition, girls and children from rural areas are often at a disadvantage due to social and cultural barriers, such as early marriage and traditional gender roles (Chatgpt, 2023).
The poverty limits education in Mozambique in many families. The normal salaries are most of the times for food, the basic need. People do a lot of times struggle to pay school and college expendidures reason why the small informal businesses are an outlet.
For education to be successful, it is not enough to ensure that children attend school but importantly, they also need to learn while they are in school. The expansion in primary education, because of limited resources, put pressure on quality of the education. Children and parents frequently complain about the low quality of infrastructure, lack of availability of books, and increasing class sizes (Moz policy note, 2012:3).
For Bonde and Matavel (2022:2) education funding is one of the problems that most underdeveloped countries face daily. Many of these countries are economically dependent due to their respective States’ fragility and postcolonial condition (Crossley, 2001; Williams, 2009). Vieira, Vidal, and Queiroz (2021) argue that “education financing is a key theme of the debate on educational policy. Far from being exhaustedly discussed by the literature in the field, it represents a challenge fruitful and permanent to reflection” (Vieira; Vidal; Queiroz, 2021, p. 1).
In the case of Mozambique, since the country’s independence in 1975, the Government has faced problems in financing its education. About this reality, Oliveira (1995) states that “enabling democratic and quality public education implies providing financing sources” (Oliveira, 1995, p. 76) see page 2.
The difficulty of financing the Mozambican education resulted in inquiring its international partners to assist within this sector. In a first phase, external funding came from several countries (bilateral and multilateral), from the period of socialist orientation (1975-1986) and in the later phase of multipartidarism (1990). These financings were directed to the General State Budget until 2001. In 2002, the Education Sector Support Fund (FASE) was created, which is the main instrument for channeling external funds to the sector. “The Common Fund (FASE) is the most aligned instrument for channeling external funds to finance the sector’s annual plan, using state procedures and instruments regarding planning, implementation, and monitoring”, says the Ministry of Education and Human Development (MINEDH, 2010, p. 56). page 2
The Common Fund (FASE), by which most of the external funding to the sector is channeled, contributes to the financing of key programs focusing on funding programs for basic education, such as the textbook, direct support to schools, teacher training, supervision, and accelerated construction of classrooms. Half of the FASE spending is continuous.
Among the many objectives of the FASE, the following stand out: [1] – achieve the Millennium Development Goal; [2] – achieve Universal Primary Education for all; and [3] – ensure the completion of primary education for all children in 2015. The FASE was created by the Education for All Fast Track Initiative (FTI). FTI follows the commitment of the international community established at the 4th World Education for All Forum in Dakar, stating that no country committed to providing basic education for all and with a credible plan would be limited to achieving this goal due to the lack of financial resources (MINEDH, 2010, p. 8). Therefore, it was by the FTI that the Direct Support to Schools (ADE) was introduced. Hanlon (1997) considers that “Mozambique has become the country most dependent on foreign aid and probably still is” (Hanlon, 1997, p. 15). Abrahamsson and Nilsson (1994) state that “Mozambique is now in a considerably worse situation than at the time of independence” (Abrahamsson; Nilsson, 1994, 73). We understand that the country should reduce foreign aid and create its own sources of investment for education and other social and economic areas, for local problems must have local solutions. As long as partners continue to fund education, they will continue to outline Mozambique’s educational policies and we will hardly leave this external dependence.
World Bank documents highlight this reality. The Education for All Global Monitoring Report tells that “external models of good educational practices, defended without much conviction by different groups of agencies, are generally not sufficiently attuned to local circumstances” (UNESCO, 2005, p. 23). Unable to manage and finance education, the Mozambican Government has opted for privatizing education since 1990 to get rid of the financial burden. Therefore, Mozambique has forgotten that there is not a single experience in the world that has developed high educational standards with discourses, but with resources. Silva and Oliveira (2020) claims that “[…] when governments rely on privatization to expand access to education, this approach may conflict with the promotion of universal access, especially for the most marginalized populations” (Silva; Oliveira, 2020, p. 14).
Lack of relevant curriculum
The curriculum in Mozambique is often seen as outdated and not relevant to the needs of students or the economy. This can lead to a mismatch between the skills students learn in school and the skills required by employers, limiting their opportunities for future employment (chatgpt, 2023).
Mozambique has made impressive advancement in improving access to lower and upper primary school since the education reforms of 2004, which abolished all national primary school fees, provided free textbooks and introduced a new curriculum, while maintaining the high pace of school construction and teacher training. Enrollment in primary schools surged as the combination of lower costs and supply of schools increased access particularly for poorer families. The study shows that in lower primary (EP1), access improved the most the response to the reforms was highest for poorer families, whereas in upper primary (EP2), the gains for poor families were limited. Overall, the primary system has become more inclusive (Moz policy note, 2012:2).
To conclude, Mozambique is an underdeveloped nation which educational challenges has to deal with poverty, quality, limited access and limited resources. However, there are some great results on education access in the rural communities such as in Nampula, where some organization like “Girl Move”, has been working with young girls. More could be done to reduce these challenges, such as the government investing more money in education, increasing teachers salaries and quality of skills, which consequently would improve children and young people education.
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Rui Amadeu Bonde and Princidónio Abrão Matavel: Education Financing in Mozambique and its Challenges. Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo/SP Brazil & Universidade Federal de São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos/SP – Brazil. 2022.
Silva, Rui da; Oliveira, Joana. Privatização da educação em 24 países africanos:
tendências, pontos comuns e atípicos. Educação & Sociedade, Campinas, v. 41, 2020.
UNESCO. Organização das Nações Unidas para a Educação, a Ciência e a Cultura. Educação para todos: o imperativo da qualidade. Relatório de monitoramento global. Brasília, DF: Unesco; São Paulo: Moderna, 2005.
Vieira, Sofia Lerche; Vidal, Eloisa Maia; Queiroz, Paulo Alexandre Sousa. Financiamento e Expansão do Ensino Médio: o caso da diversificação da oferta no Ceará. EccoS – Rev. Cient., São Paulo, n. 58, p. 1-23, jul./set. 2021.
Education is a fundamental human right. As dictated by the ICESCR and CESCR, everyone is entitled to non-discriminatory, quality, culturally sensitive, affordable, and accessible education. According to the Human Rights Measurement Initiative, in 2019 Perú showed fairly good results when it came to using its income to ensure the fulfillment of people’s right to education. From a low-and-middle-income assessment standard, it achieved 89.3% of the benchmark set for the global ranking, and 90.5% of its income-adjusted benchmark[i]. Indeed, there have been considerable improvements in the Peruvian education system throughout the years, such as an increase in the education budget (a 50% between 2012 and 2017) and overall greater accessibility and provision of education to the bulk of society[ii].
Nevertheless, numerous recent sources indicate, through a more nuanced view, that several obstacles still hamper accessible and quality education in Perú, especially for certain vulnerable populations, which in some cases are discriminated simultaneously at multiple levels. The following paragraphs will outline some of the current challenges that Perú faces when ensuring human rights in education.
Segregation
According to a recent in-depth study that uses data from the Peruvian Ministry of Education, the uneven distribution of students in Peruvian schools depending on socioeconomic level, but also residence location or performance is a great challenge that is barely attended. Having extremely homogenous populations in educational centers, with certain centers accumulating those with similar socioeconomic advantages, negatively affects social cohesion, the quality of education, the exchange of social capital and the access to equal opportunities.
An example of this can be found in the expansion of private education centers. Originating in the widespread prestige of private education among Peruvians since the 90’s, the popularity and demand for private centers has increased steeply. Registration to basic education centers went from 14% in 1997 to 28.4% in 2020[iii]. While the Peruvian state pushed for universal education by providing public centers, it allowed the expansion of privatization, placing little regulation upon the sector. This has coincided with an increase of segregation in education, there currently is an uneven distribution of the student population among educational centers.
Rural public schools hold a disproportionately great number of low-income students, followed by urban public centers, then low-cost private centers and finally high-cost private centers, which are mainly composed by high-income students and barely contain socioeconomically disadvantaged students. Within the private circuit, the performance of students also increases with the cost of the school, pointing to the idea that individuals get only the education they can pay for.[iv] It should be noted that student performance in the increasingly popular low-cost private centers is sometimes similar or even lower than in standardized public schools, while they sometimes lack appropriate material and teacher capacitation. This indicates that the prestige of private education is sometimes uncalled for.[v]
Another example of segregation in education is displayed by the COAR or High-Performance Centers, secondary education centers that “reward talent”. Such public institutions accumulate students with outstanding results and are sometimes framed as inclusive, since they provide the opportunity to obtain “better quality” education those who cannot afford private schools. But it is precisely in the fact that the state guarantees a better quality of education in those centers that they become problematic, since the state fails its own responsibility to ensure the same educational quality to all its citizens. The 25 existing COAR only contain around 6.700 students in total and their student investment is 12.5 times higher compared to the rest of public schools, undermining the principles of equity and equal access to opportunities.[vi] Separating high-performance students from their original schools also curtails the possibility of peer-to-peer learning and improvement for the rest of students.
Moreover, while the access to a COAR seems to be solely determined by an individual’s “merit”, it must be considered that minority and vulnerable populations (such as individuals from rural and indigenous areas, whose mother tongue is not Spanish and whose parents have a low educational level) are significantly less likely to be enrolled or accepted in a COAR. It can be argued that “talent” is, in the end, only easily recognized and displayed in contexts of advantage; it is necessary to promote inclusive educational systems that provide equal opportunities for all.
Since May 2022 there has been a controversial law in place that can deeply affect education in human and civil rights, curtailing the quality of education: the Law No. 31498. This law essentially allocates greater power to parent’s associations to overwatch the curriculum of primary and secondary school levels, including veto power. The law contemplates that a moral criterion can be applied when overwatching (or vetoing) the curriculum’s content.
While supporters of this law claim that it can enhance the quality of the educational material, organizations such as Human Rights Watch claim that this law puts quality and independent education to risk by subjugating the expertise of teachers and the Ministry of Education to parent’s views and opinions. They acknowledge that it is important to involve the parents in the educational process, but they note that this law has, in practice, translated into the reduction or veto of education in gender and sexuality matters.[vii] Such education is crucial to promote equality, social justice, and human rights, especially considering the high teen pregnancy rates and increased sexual violence rates in Perú.[viii] In fact, one of the recommendations by the 2018 UPR highlighted the need of an integral sexual education to inform women and girls about sexual health and reproductive rights.[ix] In short, this law potentially challenges the quality of education in human rights, justice and freedom of expression while hampering the development of critical thinking skills.
Also, as regards legal improvements, it should be noted that, as noted in the 2018 UPR recommendations, fully equipping disabled people with full juridical capacity and recognition in the Civil Code could guarantee their access to adapted, inclusive, quality education, which is something that hasn’t been fully achieved yet.[x]
The Digital Gap
The Covid-19 pandemic hit the Peruvian educational system hard: in 2021, a total of 124.533 students stopped attending the classes. Although the government of Perú acted fast and implemented various policies to continue providing education for all students (including the provision of technological material to families with little resources and connectivity, and equipping teachers with capacities to adapt to virtual education)[xi], the crisis underscored a salient problem in Peruvian education: the so-called Digital Gap.
Children from a rural area using technological devices. Photo by Servindi.
Numerous studies conducted during and after the pandemic highlighted that rural, usually indigenous families (which are also often the ones with lowest income) have got less access to technological material, sometimes lack internet connection and, by extension, attain less digital literacy than those located in urban areas under better socioeconomical conditions.[xii] The lack of technological accessibility and knowledge is a widespread problem in South America and the Caribbean, where as much as 55% of the population is affected.[xiii] This gap represents a situation of inequality in education access and quality between urban, wealthier populations and poorer rural communities, and it has implications far beyond the Covid-19 pandemic in a future where digital access is increasingly essential for professional development[xiv]. Less than 10% of the Peruvian population that did not finish primary education has access to internet[xv], highlighting that the inequality also affects those with a lower educational level, making the inequality somewhat cyclical. It should also be considered that ensuring the obtention of technology is not enough: the technological item itself needs to be accessible to students with special needs, which reportedly was the most overlooked collective during the pandemic.
Illiteracy, School Dropout and Absenteeism
According to the National Statistics Institute, around 5.6% of the population over 15 years old in Perú do not know how to read and write.[xvi] Literacy is key to reduce poverty and build democratic and fair societies with respect for social equality and human rights. While steady improvements have been made in this area in Perú, the illiteracy rate remains high, especially among, again, vulnerable collectives and minorities. Most illiterate individuals live in contexts of extreme poverty located in rural areas (in which illiteracy is 4 times greater than in urban areas), are indigenous, and their mother tongue is Quichua, Aimara or another regional language.[xvii] The gender component, which will be elaborated on further on this article, also plays into illiteracy: 8.3% of Peruvian women are illiterate, compared to 2.9% of men.[xviii]
Women from a rural area attending a literacy class. Photo by Diario Correo.
The number of workers between 14 and 18 years old has reportedly increased by 485.000 in 2021.[xix] Many young individuals who live in non-urban areas in poor economic conditions, often must assume work duties to survive, which makes their school attendance irregular and negatively impacts their performance.[xx] This is especially true for girls, who are often assigned to do the bulk of domestic work by their families, or who are affected by teenage pregnancy and sometimes forced into marriage.[xxi] This represents an obstacle to alphabetization and obtention of quality education, as well as a school dropout problem: the dropout rate in Perú is of 6.3%. For the reasons mentioned above, the rate for women is of 10.2% while for men it is of 8.4%.[xxii]
The challenge here is obvious: there needs to be greater efforts to increase literacy, particularly in poverty and rural contexts, including tending to the cultural and language needs of indigenous communities by enacting more flexible and inclusive education systems.[xxiii] Gender sensitive policies to ensure the education of girls and women must also be developed, while fighting patriarchal gender roles that undermine their rights.
A child working in agriculture. Photo available in RCR.
Sexual Violence in Education
In 2018, 34.6% of the Peruvian teenagers between the ages of 12 and 17 had reportedly been victims of sexual abuse either at home or at school.[xxiv] Needless to say, these experiences deeply harm children at various levels and profoundly violate their human rights, including their right to quality education. This figure is alarming enough to highlight the importance of preventing such violence in education through implementing strong reporting and detection mechanisms, applying multisectoral prevention plans against child victimization, providing education in sexual and gender matters, raising awareness as well as building a stronger and more accessible justice system.[xxv]
Discrimination
As it can be picked up from the sections above, there is a level of discrimination towards certain (vulnerable) populations in Peruvian education, expressed through situations of inequity, inequality of opportunities and access to education, and differential provision of quality education.
Discrimination by gender is one of the most pressing matters. As explained earlier, Peruvian women and girls experience inequality in access and permanence in primary, secondary, and tertiary education due to socially enforced sexist gender roles that disregard their right to quality education.[xxvi] The inequality worsens in the case of women who live in rural areas; a limited education limits their professional possibilities, driving them towards jobs that do not require professionalization, provide low incomes and poor working conditions.[xxvii] Moreover, although the legislation includes a gender lens in education since 2003, implementation of a curriculum on gender issues has been very slow, mainly due to the opposition of religious groups.[xxviii] Hence, education in Perú still enforces sexist stereotypes that perpetuate gender inequalities.
Children from rural areas attending class. Photo by Educacción Perú.
Inequality is experienced by rural populations as well, visible through the previously mentioned education access difficulties, lower quality education due to lower resource allocation in rural educational centers, lack of technological facilities, and socioeconomical constrains. Indeed, the discrimination of these individuals intersects with the discrimination of lower socioeconomic status individuals, whose conditions makes it hard to attain educational continuity and good performance. Only 1 in 10 poor youths access university, while 5 in 10 rich youths do.[xxix]
Also intersecting with the discrimination towards rural populations, there is a longstanding discrimination against indigenous peoples. Evidence of this is displayed, for example, by the fact that they are vastly underrepresented in tertiary education. Students whose mother tongue is Spanish are more than twice as likely to register in tertiary education (34.4%) than those whose mother tongue is an indigenous one (14.1%).[xxx]
Disabled students also suffer a longstanding situation of inequality that, although formally condemned by the state and legally acknowledged, in practice results in the continued segregation of disabled students and a deficient Basic Education assistance rate of 52%.[xxxi]
Disabled children attending school. Photo by Perú 21.
Yet another level of discrimination in education can be seen against Venezuelan migrant children. Venezuelan migration to Perú for sociopolitical and economic reasons has been a rising phenomenon over the last years. Unfortunately, prejudices against them and structural disadvantages has placed them in a position of vulnerability; and Venezuelan children have not been exempted from it: 42% of Venezuelan children in Perú still have not accessed formal education.[xxxii] More palpable forms of discrimination towards Venezuelan children such as xenophobic bullying have also been reported. Physical or psychological violence in the context of education has been the result of xenophobia against Venezuelans, sometimes intersecting with other forms of discrimination, such as gender-based prejudices, which have contributed to the hyper-sexualization of Venezuelan girls.[xxxiii]
All in all, it seems necessary to promote inclusive educational schemes in which centers, educators, students, and families take conscience of the existing inequalities and work together to overcome them. The state needs to properly equip institutions and professionals in order to implement policies that shape a system that truly grants universal access to the same opportunities and quality contents while ensuring a positive and safe environment for all individuals.[xxxiv]
Acho Ramírez, S., Diaz Espinoza, M., Criollo Hidalgo, V., & García Camacho, O. E. (2021). La realidad de la educación inclusiva en el Perú y los retos desde la virtualidad. In EduSol, 21(77), 153-168.
Ames, P (2021). Educación,¿la mejor herencia o el mejor negocio?: La segregación educativa en el Perú y los desafíos para la formación ciudadana. In Revista Peruana de Investigación Educativa, 13(15).
Becerra Paico, B. D. (2022). Políticas públicas en educación: Discriminación por género en el sistema educativo, caso Centro Poblado Saltur del distrito de Zaña, provincia de Chiclayo en la región Lambayeque, 2018-2019. Universidad Nacional Pedro Ruiz Gallo, Facultad de Ciencias Histórico Sociales y Educación.
Castillo-Acobo, R., Quispe, H., Arias-Gonzáles, J., & Amaro, C. (2022). Consideraciones de los docentes sobre las barreras de la educación inclusiva. Revista De Filosofía, 39.
Cuenca, R., & Urrutia, C. E. (2019). Explorando las brechas de desigualdad educativa en el Perú. In Revista mexicana de investigación educativa, 24(81), 431-461.
Human Rights Tracker (n. d.) Right to education – Human Rights Tracker. Retrieved from:https://rightstracker.org/en/metric/education?pb=best&dir=desc®ion=americas
INEI (2018). Capítulo 6: Tasa de analfabetismo. In Perú: Indicadores de Educación por Departamentos, 2008-2018 (pp. 131–140).
Navas Zaraza, A., & Morin Cabrera, N. (2021). Documento de orientaciones para la prevención de la discriminación y el acoso escolar xenofóbico en las instituciones educativas. In repositorio.minedu.gob.pe.
Ortega Murga, O. J., Quispe Ávalos, A. M., Consuelo Navarro, B., & Tello Sifuentes, Y. (2021). La educación virtual en época de pandemia: Los más desfavorecidos en el Perú. In Horizontes Revista de Investigación en Ciencias de la Educación, 5(21), 109-122.
Rojas, E. S. A. (2022). La equidad de género en la educación peruana. In Sapienza: International Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 3(1), 608-619.
Santa María, B. C., Nizama, J. L. R., Santa María, I. C., & Ramírez, G. S. (2020). Educación y recursos económicos en mujeres del campo en Perú. In Revista de ciencias sociales, 26(2), 81-93.
Tarazona, C. N. (2021). Tensiones respecto a la brecha digital en la educación peruana. In Revista peruana de investigación e innovación educativa, 1(2), e21039-e21039.
UN, Human Rights Council (2018, March 28). Informe del Grupo de Trabajo sobre el Examen Periódico Universal. Examen Periódico Universal. United Nations, A/HRC/37/8.
Per rispettare gli standard nazionali e internazionali in materia di diritti umani, il Sudafrica deve affrontare diversi ostacoli nella sua sfera educativa. Questo articolo presenterà alcune delle sfide educative più diffuse nel Paese.
Infrastrutture
Uno dei problemi principali del settore educativo oggi è rappresentato dalle strutture a disposizione degli studenti. È di fondamentale importanza che le scuole includano strutture sicure e protette per i bambini e le attrezzature necessarie agli studenti per proseguire la loro istruzione. Secondo Equal Education (EE, 2016), nel 2013 il ministro dell’Istruzione di base, Angie Montshegka, ha accettato una legge che obbliga le scuole di tutto il Paese a disporre almeno di acqua, elettricità, internet, aule sicure con un massimo di 40 studenti in classe, sicurezza e le strutture necessarie per studiare e praticare diversi sport. Sebbene l’obiettivo sia stato fissato per il 2016, oggi molte scuole hanno problemi ben più gravi di una cattiva connessione a Internet. Il Paese sta cercando di raggiungere gli obiettivi prefissati, ma la strada da percorrere è ancora lunga. Numerosi articoli evidenziano i casi di morte di studenti a causa di infrastrutture inadeguate. Inoltre, le carenze igieniche delle scuole sono un problema che influisce sulla salute degli studenti. Un esempio è dato dai servizi igienici e dalle latrine a fossa, dove gli studenti sono a rischio di problemi di salute a causa dell’igiene inadeguata. Questi ostacoli impediscono agli studenti di concentrarsi sull’istruzione e sullo sviluppo.
Disuguaglianza nell’istruzione
Le disuguaglianze sono ampiamente visibili nelle scuole sudafricane. Secondo Amnesty International, i bambini delle prime 200 scuole ottengono punteggi più alti in matematica rispetto ai bambini delle altre 6.600 scuole. Altre statistiche evidenziano che oltre il 75% dei bambini di nove anni non è in grado di leggere in modo significativo. In alcune province, la percentuale raggiunge il 91%. Il sistema educativo si sta ancora riprendendo dall’era dell’Apartheid, con il risultato che i bambini vengono trattati in modo diverso a causa della loro provenienza, della ricchezza o del colore della pelle. The Quality of Primary Education in South Africa, un rapporto dell’UNESCO, afferma che, in teoria, tutti i bambini hanno uguale accesso ai tre livelli di istruzione del Paese. Tuttavia, molti istituti che ospitano studenti provenienti da comunità a basso reddito non sono riusciti a migliorare la qualità dell’istruzione impartita. Il governo deve affrontare il problema della povertà e dell’istruzione.
Istruzione scadente
Inoltre, la qualità dell’istruzione scolastica è un problema prevalente in Sudafrica. Secondo una ricerca condotta da Gustafsson nel 2021, il pensionamento degli insegnanti in Sudafrica raggiungerà il picco massimo entro il 2030, il che comporterà di conseguenza la necessità di nuovi educatori formati e la ristrutturazione di classi e istituti. Attualmente, la metà delle classi ha 30 studenti per classe, ma il restante 50% può superare i 50 bambini in una classe. Per ridurre il numero, si stima che circa 100.000 nuovi insegnanti entrino nel sistema educativo, il che richiede formazione e finanziamenti su larga scala.
Un’altra sfida che il settore educativo sudafricano deve affrontare oggi è la qualità degli insegnanti. Oltre 5.000 degli attuali insegnanti non sono qualificati per la loro professione. Gli insegnanti non sono competitivi sul mercato del lavoro; hanno una scarsa comprensione dei programmi di studio e nessuna competenza pedagogica, il che porta gli studenti a diplomarsi senza le conoscenze necessarie.
Ciclo di analfabetismo
Infine, secondo il rapporto OCSE del 2019, il Sudafrica ha la più alta percentuale di persone di età compresa tra i 20 e i 24 anni nel settore NEET (né occupazione né istruzione). Il Sudafrica ha ottenuto un punteggio di quasi il 50% su questo criterio, il più alto tra tutti i Paesi esaminati dal rapporto dell’OCSE. Il rapporto 2021 del professor Khuluvhe parla della gravità del problema dell’analfabetismo, affermando che, nel 2019, il tasso di adulti analfabeti (di età superiore ai 20 anni) era del 12,1%, ovvero circa 4,4 milioni. Ciò equivale a una parte considerevole della popolazione che non ha raggiunto un livello di istruzione di 7° grado o superiore. L’analfabetismo comporta conseguenze di vasta portata per la popolazione, tra cui una prole non istruita e il mancato contributo alla società, danneggiando così l’economia del Paese. Il Sudafrica deve affrontare questo problema e ridurre il più possibile la percentuale di analfabetismo.
Në mënyrë që të jetë në përputhje me standardet kombëtare dhe ndërkombëtare të të drejtave të njeriut, Afrika e Jugut duhet të përballet me disa pengesa në sferën e tyre arsimore. Ky artikull do të paraqesë disa nga sfidat më të përhapura arsimore në vend.
Infrastruktura
Një nga problemet kryesore në sektorin arsimor sot janë mjediset në dispozicion të nxënësve. Është shumë e rëndësishme që shkollat të përfshijnë ambiente të sigurta për fëmijët, si dhe pajisje të nevojshme për nxënësit për të vazhduar shkollimin e tyre. Sipas Equal Education (EE, 2016) në vitin 2013, Ministrja e Arsimit Bazë, Angie Montshegka, pranoi një ligj që detyronte shkollat në të gjithë vendin të kenë të paktën ujë, energji elektrike, internet, klasa të sigurta me deri në 40 nxënës në klasë, siguri, dhe mjediset e nevojshme për të studiuar dhe praktikuar sporte të ndryshme. Edhe pse objektivi ishte vendosur për vitin 2016, sot, shumë shkolla kanë probleme shumë më të këqija se një lidhje e keqe e internetit.
Vendi po shikon drejt përmbushjes së objektivave të vendosura, por ka ende shumë për të bërë. Artikuj të shumtë theksojnë vdekjet e raportuara të nxënësve për shkak të infrastrukturës së dobët.
Gjithashtu, higjiena jo-adekuate e shkollave është një çështje që ndikon në shëndetin e nxënësve. Një shembull i kësaj shihet në tualetet e tyre, ku studentët janë në rrezik të problemeve shëndetësore për shkak të higjienës së tyre jo të duhur. Këto pengesa i pengojnë studentët të përqendrohen në edukimin dhe zhvillimin e tyre.
Pabarazi ne edukim
Pabarazia është kryesisht e dukshme në shkollat e Afrikës së Jugut. Sipas Amnesty International, fëmijët në 200 shkollat e para shënojnë rezultate më të larta në matematikë sesa fëmijët në 6600 shkollat e tjera. Statistikat e tjera theksojnë se më shumë se 75% e nëntëvjeçarëve nuk mund të lexojnë me kuptim. Në disa krahina, përqindja është deri në 91%. Sistemi arsimor është ende duke u shëruar nga epoka e aparteidit, duke rezultuar që fëmijët të trajtohen ndryshe për shkak të prejardhjes, pasurisë ose ngjyrës së lëkurës së tyre. Persa i perket cilesise se arsimit fillor në Afrikën e Jugut, një raport i UNESCO-s, thotë se, teorikisht, të gjithë fëmijët kanë akses të barabartë në të tre nivelet e arsimit në vend. Megjithatë, shumë institucione shkollore, studentë nga komunitetet me të ardhura të ulëta nuk kanë arritur të përmirësojnë cilësinë e arsimit që ofrojnë. Qeveria duhet të trajtojë problemin e varfërisë dhe arsimit.
Edukim i varfer
Për më tepër, cilësia e arsimit të shkollave është një çështje e përhapur në Afrikën e Jugut. Sipas hulumtimit të ndërmarrë nga Gustafsson në vitin 2021, pensionimi i mësuesve në Afrikën e Jugut do të arrijë një numër maksimal deri në vitin 2030, gjë që rrjedhimisht do të rezultojë në nevojën për edukatorë të rinj të trajnuar dhe ristrukturimin e klasave dhe institucioneve. Aktualisht, gjysma e klasave kanë 30 nxënës për klasë, por 50%-eshi tjetër mund të kalojë deri në 50 fëmijë në një klasë. Për të reduktuar shifrat, llogaritet se rreth 100,000 mësues të rinj hyjnë në sistemin arsimor, i cili kërkon trajnim dhe financim në shkallë të gjerë.
Një sfidë tjetër me të cilën përballet sot sektori arsimor në Afrikën e Jugut është cilësia e instruktorëve. Mbi 5000 nga mësuesit aktualë janë të nënkualifikuar për profesionin e tyre. Instruktorët nuk janë konkurrues në tregun e punës; ata kanë pak njohuri për kurrikulën dhe nuk kanë kompetencë pedagogjike, duke bërë që studentët të mbarojnë shkollën pa njohuritë e nevojshme.
Cikli i analfabetizmit
Më në fund, sipas Raportit të OECD nga 2019, Afrika e Jugut ka përqindjen më të lartë të njerëzve të moshës 20 deri në 24 vjeç në sektorin NEET (as punësim, as arsim). Afrika e Jugut shënoi pothuajse 50% për këtë kriter, më i madhi nga të gjitha vendet e ekzaminuara nga raporti i OECD. Raporti i Profesor Khuluvhe për vitin 2021 diskuton seriozitetin e problemit të analfabetizmit, duke deklaruar se, në vitin 2019, shkalla e të rriturve analfabetë (mbi moshën 20 vjeç ) ishte 12,1%, ose rreth 4,4 milionë. Kjo barazohet me faktin se një pjesë e konsiderueshme e popullsisë nuk arrin një nivel të arsimit të klasës së 7-të ose më të lartë. Analfabetizmi sjell pasoja të mëdha për popullatën, përfshirë pasardhësit e paarsimuar dhe moskontributin në shoqëri, duke dëmtuar kështu ekonominë e vendit. Afrika e Jugut duhet ta trajtojë këtë çështje dhe të minimizojë përqindjen e analfabetizmit sa më shumë që të jetë e mundur.
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