Written by Valeria Romano
INTRODUCTION
Education has a specific function in nation-building. Standardized education leads to the homogenization of representations and reasoning, creating a procrustean-minded population[i]. Education is the first lynchpin to build a cohesive society based on shared values and beliefs, as it allows state administration and legislation to deliver messages and socialize with its people. Schooling systems were deemed essential by colonial powers to maintain dominance in overseas territories. For instance, France established a homogeneous and highly centralized education framework in all its colonies, where educational buildings could not operate without permission and teachers had to follow a national curriculum provided by the colonial body. The goal was to impose French culture on the newly acquired territories.
This article will delve into education functioning as a colonial, oppressive framework. It will focus on the former French colony of Tunisia, presenting its history and describing relics of colonial scholastic legislation. Finally, the essay will look at contemporary academic trends in Tunisia.
HISTORY OF COLONIZED TUNISIA
In 1881, Tunisia became a French protectorate through a treaty. Although the French government did not appropriate land, France still controlled the region’s political and economic systems (Anon 2025). The French acquired most of the land privately, without direct assistance from authorities. However, the communal lands owned by the tribes, particularly the waqfs (inalienable property), could not be transferred to new owners. To stop this and facilitate the process of land acquisition for the colonial French, new laws enacted in the protectorate allowed for long-term lease (“Modern History of the Arab Countries by Vladimir Borisovich Lutsky 1969,” n.d.).[iii] Although the official language did not change, political communications had to happen in French. Moreover, Tunisian representatives had no autonomy in either international or domestic affairs. Thirteen districts of civil control were established throughout the country, except for the southern territories, which were directly controlled by the French military (idem.).motherland (Anon 2025).[vi]
In the 20th century, independence movements arose around the world. Habib Bourguiba became a prominent leader in the struggle for national autonomy, and in 1934, he founded the Neo Destour Party, which became the key force in the independence movement. After years of protests, negotiations, and increasing international pressure, Tunisia finally achieved independence from France on March 20, 1956, and Habib Bourguiba became the nation’s first president (Anon 2025).[vii]
EDUCATION FRAMEWORK
Colonization of Tunisia passed through the establishment of a novel educational framework; in particular, it represented a place where colonial settlers could learn the French language, thus, it represented the first pillar of cultural extension and domination. Educational systems in colonized territories were pivotal in constructing colonial hegemony and strengthening power relationships and control (Shaw 2024).[viii]
France’s colonial policies are composed of three phases: the 19th century, the 1900s until the end of the Second World War, and from 1945 to decolonization. The first stage is characterized by strategies of assimilation to transform Indigenous people into French people, with education seen as the primary tool to achieve such a goal. Cultural societies were degraded through the employment of textbooks teaching Indigenous children their habits and surroundings were inferior compared to the French lifestyle (Feldmann 2016).[ix]
At the beginning of the 20th century, adoption took over assimilation as the guiding concept of the educational framework. Now the curriculum is tailored to fit local environments. Instead of attempting to transform natives into Frenchmen, the goal was to allow them to gradually enhance their customary ways of life. The new strategies emphasized inequalities between the Indigenous masses, who were only granted basic levels of education, and European elites, who could access advanced education. This adaptation policy stemmed from a heightened perception of European racial superiority and skepticism regarding the abilities of indigenous peoples (Feldmann 2016).[x]
Finally, with the era of independence movements, the education framework returned to being centered around assimilation. France aimed at creating replicas in the colonies’ schooling system. Although enrollment rose significantly, the system continued to be very selective.[xi]
In Tunisia, the proliferation of public schools aimed at political, social, and economic dominance by cultivating a future homogeneous and cohesive population. France strategically did not dismantle the Islamic education system to foster a dual Franco-Arab framework to cultivate a compliant elite and reduce insurgent tendencies (Ben Salah, Chambru, and Fourati 2022).
COLONIAL RELICS AND CONTEMPORARY FRAMEWORK
The legacy of French colonialism still negatively impacts educational outcomes in former colonies. From 1972 to 2012, these countries experienced significantly lower secondary school enrollment rates compared to nations without a colonial past, with gross enrollment rates at least 10 percentage points lower. Adults in these regions attained, on average, 1.6 fewer years of schooling. The effect was even more pronounced for female students, who experienced a 12-percentage point deficit in secondary enrollment, and received nearly 1.8 fewer years of education than their counterparts in other countries (Feldmann 2016). [xv]
CONCLUSION
Relics of colonial education policies still seep into post-independence societies. While such reforms may undermine a country’s cultural identity and social strategies, the colonial legacy should not be viewed through a strictly deterministic lens. As a matter of fact, as the case of Tunisia illustrates, correct educational policies, countering spatial inequalities strengthened by the French rules, change the academic outcomes of a country.
[i] Thomas Hylland Eriksen. 2001. Small Places, Large Issues an Introduction to Social and Cultural Anthropology. London [U.A.] Pluto Press.
[ii] 2025. Carthagemagazine.com. 2025. https://carthagemagazine.com/tunisias-rich-history-from-phoenicians-to-independence.
[iii] “Modern History of the Arab Countries by Vladimir Borisovich Lutsky 1969.” n.d. Www.marxists.org. https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch21.htm.
[iv] Idem.
[v]2025. Carthagemagazine.com. 2025. https://carthagemagazine.com/tunisias-rich-history-from-phoenicians-to-independence.
[v]
[vi] “Modern History of the Arab Countries by Vladimir Borisovich Lutsky 1969.” n.d. Www.marxists.org. https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch21.htm.
- Carthagemagazine.com. 2025. https://carthagemagazine.com/tunisias-rich-history-from-phoenicians-to-independence.
[viii] Shaw, Jilian. 2024. “Research Paper: The Impact of French Colonial Ideology on Educational Institutions in Algeria and Tunisia.” Laidlaw Scholars Network. September 16, 2024. https://laidlawscholars.network/documents/research-paper-the-impact-of-french-colonial-ideology-on-educational-institutions-in-algeria-and-tunisia.
[ix] Feldmann, Horst. 2016. “The Long Shadows of Spanish and French Colonial Education.” Kyklos 69 (1): 32–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/kykl.12102.
[x] Feldmann, Horst. 2016. “The Long Shadows of Spanish and French Colonial Education.” Kyklos 69 (1): 32–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/kykl.12102.
[xi] Feldmann, Horst. 2016. “The Long Shadows of Spanish and French Colonial Education.” Kyklos 69 (1): 32–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/kykl.12102.
[xii] Ben Salah, Mhamed, Cédric Chambru, and Maleke Fourati. 2022. “The Colonial Legacy of Education: Evidence from of Tunisia.” SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4101795.
[xiii] Laidlaw Scholars Network. 2024. “Research Paper: The Impact of French Colonial Ideology on Educational Institutions in Algeria and Tunisia.” Laidlaw Scholars Network. September 16, 2024. https://laidlawscholars.network/documents/research-paper-the-impact-of-french-colonial-ideology-on-educational-institutions-in-algeria-and-tunisia.
[xiv] Ben Salah, Mhamed, Cédric Chambru, and Maleke Fourati. 2022. “The Colonial Legacy of Education: Evidence from of Tunisia.” SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4101795.
[xv] Feldmann, Horst. 2016. “The Long Shadows of Spanish and French Colonial Education.” Kyklos 69 (1): 32–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/kykl.12102.
[xvi] “Addressing the Lingering Effects of Colonial Influence on Educational Institutions.” 2024. CEPR. September 30, 2024. https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/addressing-lingering-effects-colonial-influence-educational-institutions.
[xvii] Fourati, Maleke. 2024. “Addressing the Lingering Effects of Colonial Influence on Educational Institutions.” CEPR. September 30, 2024. https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/addressing-lingering-effects-colonial-influence-educational-institutions.
Staff, Editorial. 2024. “Tunisia’s Rich History: From Carthage to Independence.” Carthage Magazine. September 5, 2024. https://carthagemagazine.com/tunisias-rich-history-from-phoenicians-to-independence/.
“Modern History of the Arab Countries by Vladimir Borisovich Lutsky 1969.” n.d. Www.marxists.org. https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch21.htm.
“Modern History of the Arab Countries by Vladimir Borisovich Lutsky 1969.” n.d. Www.marxists.org. https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch21.htm.
Staff, Editorial. 2024. “Tunisia’s Rich History: From Carthage to Independence.” Carthage Magazine. September 5, 2024. https://carthagemagazine.com/tunisias-rich-history-from-phoenicians-to-independence/.
“Modern History of the Arab Countries by Vladimir Borisovich Lutsky 1969.” n.d. Www.marxists.org. https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch21.htm.
Staff, Editorial. 2024. “Tunisia’s Rich History: From Carthage to Independence.” Carthage Magazine. September 5, 2024. https://carthagemagazine.com/tunisias-rich-history-from-phoenicians-to-independence/.
https://laidlawscholars.network/documents/research-paper-the-impact-of-french-colonial-ideology-on-educational-institutions-in-algeria-and-tunisia
file:///C:/Users/Utente/Downloads/1801710074.pdf
https://laidlawscholars.network/documents/research-paper-the-impact-of-french-colonial-ideology-on-educational-institutions-in-algeria-and-tunisia
file:///C:/Users/Utente/Downloads/1801710074.pdf
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/kykl.12102
https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/addressing-lingering-effects-colonial-influence-educational-institutions
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