Education Under Pressure: Global Challenges to Safety, Equity, and Access

Education Under Pressure: Global Challenges to Safety, Equity, and Access

Written by Panashe Mlambo

 

Introduction

Between 16 and 31 July 2025, education systems across the globe experienced a series of developments that highlight both persistent inequalities and emerging reform efforts. From infrastructure failures and violent conflict to economic pressures and gender inequality, the events of this period demonstrate the complex challenges shaping access to education worldwide.

At the same time, governments, international organisations, and local communities continue to introduce policies and initiatives aimed at strengthening education systems. Examining these developments together provides insight into the structural forces affecting global education today and the urgent need for coordinated responses to safeguard the right to education.

Safety Risks and Infrastructure Failures

Several incidents during this period exposed serious vulnerabilities in school safety and infrastructure. On 21 July 2025, a Bangladesh Air Force training jet crashed into the campus of Milestone School and College in Dhaka’s Uttara district shortly after take-off from Kurmitola Air Base. The crash killed at least 31 people, including 25 students, and injured more than 160 others (Reuters 2025). The tragedy triggered protests among students and community members who demanded accountability, compensation for victims’ families, and stricter regulations governing military training flights over populated areas.

Concerns about school safety also emerged in India, where the roof of a government school building in Rajasthan’s Jhalawar district collapsed during heavy monsoon rains, killing four children and injuring several others (Al Jazeera 2025). The incident renewed scrutiny of ageing school infrastructure, particularly in rural areas that frequently face extreme weather conditions.

In the United Kingdom, a school bus carrying children overturned on a rural road in Somerset on 17 July 2025, killing one child and injuring several others (Reuters 2025). The accident prompted renewed calls for stronger safety standards in school transport and clearer emergency protocols for school trips.

These incidents underscore the importance of consistent infrastructure maintenance, climate-resilient school construction, and effective safety protocols to protect students in educational environments.

Education in Contexts of Conflict and Displacement

Conflict and political instability continue to disrupt schooling for millions of children worldwide. In Haiti, escalating gang violence has forced schools such as Anténor Firmin in Hinche to serve as shelters for displaced families instead of functioning as learning spaces (United Nations News 2025). Teachers attempt to continue lessons through improvised classes, but shortages of food, sanitation, and educational materials make regular schooling nearly impossible.

Similarly, the growing number of Sudanese refugees in Libya has created an urgent education crisis. Many children living in Tripoli face homelessness and exploitation, while economic hardship and tuition costs have forced numerous students to drop out of school (Radio Dabanga 2025). Without sustained support, thousands of displaced children risk long-term educational loss.

Education access is even more restricted in Afghanistan, where girls remain banned from attending secondary schools and universities under Taliban policies. Many girls have therefore turned to religious madrassas, where the curriculum focuses primarily on religious instruction with limited exposure to modern subjects (Associated Press 2025). International organisations warn that millions of girls may permanently lose access to secondary education if these restrictions continue.

In Colombia, conflict and poverty continue to undermine education in regions such as Putumayo. The opening of a new branch of the Universidad de la Amazonia in Puerto Asís aims to provide young people with alternatives to illicit economies and armed group recruitment, although insecurity and economic hardship continue to threaten students’ ability to complete their studies (The New Humanitarian 2025).

These cases highlight how conflict and displacement not only interrupt schooling but also deepen long-term educational inequalities.

Gender Inequality and Social Barriers in Education

Gender inequality remains a major barrier to equitable education. In Canada, teachers have reported an increase in misogynistic attitudes among male students influenced by online content and social media personalities. Female teachers have described situations in which students refuse to acknowledge their authority, creating difficult classroom environments (CBC News 2025). Researchers argue that schools must actively address harmful gender stereotypes and promote healthier models of masculinity.

Gender disparities are also evident in Japan’s higher education system, where women remain underrepresented in academic positions and leadership roles despite decades of policy efforts to improve gender equality (Times Higher Education 2025). Experts argue that structural barriers continue to limit women’s participation and advancement within academia.

In Benin, health and sanitation challenges continue to affect girls’ ability to attend school. Menstrual poverty, combined with the absence of appropriate sanitation facilities in many schools, contributes to absenteeism and school dropout among girls. In response, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the West African Health Organisation (WAHO) distributed 5,000 reusable menstrual hygiene kits to schools as part of a regional initiative to address menstrual insecurity (News Ghana 2025). While the programme represents an important step, long-term solutions will require improved sanitation infrastructure and comprehensive menstrual health education.

These examples illustrate how social norms, gender inequality, and health-related challenges continue to shape educational experiences and access.

Economic Pressures and Structural Challenges

Financial pressures also influence education systems across the globe. In Portugal, the cost of student housing has risen sharply, with the national average rent for a private room exceeding €415 per month. The rising cost of living has made it increasingly difficult for students to afford higher education, particularly in major cities such as Lisbon and Porto (Euronews 2025).

In Egypt, overcrowded classrooms and teacher shortages continue to strain the public education system. Some classrooms reportedly accommodate more than forty students, and in extreme cases up to two hundred (Human Rights Watch 2025). Although the government has introduced pilot initiatives such as preschool programmes in mosques to expand educational capacity, education spending as a proportion of GDP remains below international benchmarks.

Policy debates in the United States also highlight concerns about education funding. Advocacy organisations warn that proposed changes to federal education programmes could affect services for vulnerable groups, including students with disabilities and adult learners.

These cases demonstrate how financial constraints and policy decisions influence both the accessibility and quality of education.

Reform Efforts and Educational Innovation

Despite these challenges, several countries are pursuing reforms aimed at strengthening education systems. In Sri Lanka, the government has proposed transitioning from an exam-centred education system to a module-based model beginning in 2026. The reform aims to encourage continuous assessment and more diverse learning methods.

Technological innovation is also shaping education policy. Rwanda’s Digital Acceleration Project, part of the Smart Rwanda Master Plan, has electrified hundreds of rural schools using off-grid solar power and expanded access to digital learning tools (The Borgen Project 2025). Similarly, Nigeria has approved solar hybrid power systems for several universities in an effort to stabilise electricity supply and support academic activities.

Early childhood education initiatives are also gaining attention. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, a new Early Childhood Development Centre has been established through cooperation between UNICEF, the European Union, and national authorities. The centre aims to identify developmental challenges early and coordinate support across the education, health, and social protection sectors (UNICEF 2025).

Community-driven initiatives are also emerging. In Malaysia, the proposed “Siswa Balik Sekolah” programme seeks to connect university students with rural primary schools, allowing them to mentor younger students in key subjects such as mathematics and science.

Together, these initiatives demonstrate the diverse strategies countries are adopting to improve access to education and strengthen learning outcomes.

Conclusion

The developments observed between 16 and 31 July 2025 reveal a global education landscape marked by both urgent challenges and ongoing reform efforts. Safety incidents in Bangladesh, India, and the United Kingdom highlight the need for stronger infrastructure and protection measures. Meanwhile, conflict and displacement continue to undermine education access in Haiti, Libya, Afghanistan, and Colombia.

At the same time, structural challenges—including gender inequality, economic pressures, and teacher shortages—affect education systems across both developed and developing countries. Nevertheless, reforms such as Sri Lanka’s curriculum changes, Rwanda’s digital infrastructure expansion, and early childhood initiatives in Bosnia and Herzegovina demonstrate that progress remains possible through sustained investment and policy innovation.

Ensuring that every child has access to safe, inclusive, and quality education will require long-term commitment from governments, international organisations, and civil society. Addressing both immediate crises and structural inequalities is essential to safeguarding the right to education worldwide.

Endnotes

  1. Reuters. “Students protest in Bangladesh after air force jet crash kills 31, mostly children.” 2025.
  2. Reuters. “One child killed in UK school bus crash.” 2025.
  3. Al Jazeera. “At least four children dead in school roof collapse in India.” 2025.
  4. United Nations News. “Schools in Haiti shelter displaced families amid violence.” 2025.
  5. Radio Dabanga. “Sudanese children on the streets of Tripoli face homelessness and exploitation.” 2025.
  6. Associated Press. “Afghanistan girls turn to madrassas amid education ban.” 2025.
  7. CBC News. “Misogyny and online influencers affecting boys in classrooms.” 2025.
  8. Times Higher Education. “Gender equality challenges in Japan’s higher education sector.” 2025.
  9. News Ghana. “ECOWAS distributes reusable sanitary kits to Benin schools.” 2025.
  10. Euronews. “Rising rents: Which is the cheapest city in Portugal for students to live in.” 2025.
  11. The New Humanitarian. “Colombia’s new university aims to break the cycle of conflict.” 2025.
  12. The Borgen Project. “The impacts of the Smart Rwanda Master Plan.” 2025.
  13. UNICEF. “Early childhood development centre opened in Doboj.” 2025.

Reference List

Al Jazeera. (2025). At least four children dead in school roof collapse in India. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/7/25/at-least-four-children-dead-in-school-roof-collapse-in-india

Associated Press. (2025). Afghanistan girls turn to madrassas amid education ban. https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-taliban-education-girls-madrassa-7cdaf68896e8ccfda2abd71a07a02b99

CBC News. (2025). Misogyny and online influencers affecting boys in classrooms. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/misogyny-online-influencers-boys-classrooms-1.7587571

Euronews. (2025). Rising rents: Which is the cheapest city in Portugal for students to live in. https://www.euronews.com/business/2025/07/29/rising-rents-which-is-the-cheapest-city-in-portugal-for-students-to-live-in

News Ghana. (2025). ECOWAS distributes reusable sanitary kits to Benin schools. https://www.newsghana.com.gh/ecowas-distributes-reusable-sanitary-kits-to-benin-schools

Radio Dabanga. (2025). Sudanese children on the streets of Tripoli face homelessness and exploitation. https://www.dabangasudan.org/en/all-news/article/sudanese-children-on-the-streets-of-tripoli-face-homelessness-and-exploitation

Reuters. (2025). Students protest in Bangladesh after air force jet crash kills 31. https://www.reuters.com

Reuters. (2025). One child killed in UK school bus crash. https://www.reuters.com

The Borgen Project. (2025). The impacts of the Smart Rwanda Master Plan. https://borgenproject.org

The New Humanitarian. (2025). Colombia’s new university aims to break the cycle of conflict. https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org

Times Higher Education. (2025). Gender equality challenges in Japan’s higher education sector. https://www.timeshighereducation.com

UNICEF. (2025). Early childhood development centre opened in Doboj. https://www.unicef.org

United Nations News. (2025). Schools in Haiti shelter displaced families amid violence. https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/07/1165414

 

Learning Under Army Rule: The Militarization of Education in Myanmar

Learning Under Army Rule: The Militarization of Education in Myanmar

Written By: Liina Knirsch

On February 1st, 2021, the military in Myanmar seized political power in a coup, abruptly ending a fragile decade of democratic progress. This coup has severely disrupted the social and political life of the people in Myanmar, leading to many fleeing the country and seeking asylum. For those who remain, engaging in conflict is inevitable. Myanmar has had a longstanding history of insurgency groups which have engaged in fighting against the national army (Maizland, 2022). Following the coup, oppositional parties have formed a shadow government, which has led to the mobilization of many different armed groups across the country. The fighting between these groups and the military junta has been increasing, amounting to a civil war (Maizland, 2022). According to UNHCR (2024), over 3.5 million people are now internally displaced in Myanmar, and many have fled to neighboring Thailand.      Further, the historically vulnerable and repressed Rohingya population are increasingly attempting to cross over into Bangladesh to escape violence and ethnic segregation after they have been caught in the crossfire between the army and the armed Arakan Army (UN News, 2025).

As a result of this civil war, many young people have been brought into this conflict. The military junta has enforced mandatory conscription for all men between the ages of 18-35 and all women between 18-27 (Human Rights Myanmar, 2025). Failure to comply with this rule can be punishable by up to five years in prison. As a result, more young people have fled the country or been driven to join the insurgency.

Historically, young people in Myanmar have been crucial in democratic movements, with schools and universities serving as grounds for discussion and organization against military rule. Consequently, the army views such institutions as a threat to their power, enforcing harsh measures to prevent such movements from forming again. Schools are now being used as sites for control and military recruitment (Human Rights Myanmar, 2025).

Censorship on Education

The military junta has been particularly adamant in its efforts to censor freedom of speech. The organization Freedom House has marked Myanmar with a “not free” status (Freedom House, 2024). Such censorship is also present in the national curriculum. Teachers are forced to exclude sensitive and political topics, such as the ethnic history of the country or education on democracy. Any deviation from the military junta approved subjects serves as grounds for imprisonment. Moreover, schools are now used to glorify the military regime and serve as recruitment grounds for the military (Brown, 2024).

In light of this censorship, many teachers have quit or have started teaching at underground schools. Following the coup, 230.000 teachers went on strike (Dejsupa, 2023). Many have left the capital, Yangon, to teach in rebel-controlled areas. Others have tried to teach alternative curricula online; however, this means having to bypass the extreme censorship placed on the internet. This means that there is a high number of Non-Formal Education (NFE) programs in the country, which can present further challenges when it comes to accreditation especially when moving on to higher education (Voices Team, 2025).  This means many students cannot convert their learning into officially recognized diplomas, sit for national exams, or attend university under the junta if they have received NFE education.

 

Detainment of Teachers and Students

Following the coup, 125.000 teachers in Myanmar were suspended for joining civil disobedience movements, comprising of more than ¼ of the entire teacher workforce.  Over 500 teachers have also been arrested (Human Rights Myanmar, 2025) since the coup, and several have received harsh prison sentences for their alleged involvement in anti-government activities. In 2023, Ei Shwe Sin Myint, who was head teacher at an anti-government school, was sentenced to 20 years in prison under anti-terrorism law (RFA Burmese, 2023).

Students are also facing grave consequences for their involvement in anti-governmental activities. Arrests against young people in Myanmar have been widespread. Sometimes a clear motive is given, such as the possession of textbooks. Other times such arrests are simply aimed at inciting fear (Human Rights Myanmar, 2025).

University student unions have been particularly scrutinized by the military junta. This is significant as student unions have historically played a major role in the struggle for democracy and resistance in the country, having had a prominent role in the 1962 and 1988 anti-military protests (Frontier, 2022). Student unions across universities have been forced to disband and have been replaced by student associations which are believed to be supported by the State Administration Council. Leaders of such unions also believe that the hostility they face today stems from their role in the mass strikes known as the Civil Disobedience Movement. Student Unions boycotted classes which embarrassed the military junta and have continued to result in low university enrollment rates of less than 10 percent today (Frontier, 2022).

Attacks on Schools

Particularly in areas in which the resistance has a strong influence, attacks on the education sector are widespread. On the 12th of May 2025, a military airstrike targeted a school run by the oppositional National Unity Government in the Sagaing region, killing 20 students and two teachers (Peck, 2025). While the military generally denies involvement, such airstrikes are justified by claims that resistance fighters were sheltering in the attacked areas. Attacks against schools are a violation of international law as such institutions are granted special status and protection.  Reports show that over 200 schools have been targeted by military airstrikes since 2021 with 146 being destroyed, 64 people killed, and 106 injured (RFA Burmese, 2024)[1]. This shows that the attacks are deliberate and targeted, reflecting the broader efforts to undermine education in the country.

Conclusion

The military junta’s systematic repression of education in Myanmar highlights how schools and universities are seen not only as centers of learning but also as potential sites of resistance. The efforts of the military junta to undermine the freedom of education are an attempt to control the young generation and rewrite history favorably towards them. Educational institutions are viewed as grounds for undermining dissent and places of active recruitment for the military. Through censorship, arrests, and airstrikes, the military is sending a clear message to young people and educators in the country: that dissent will be punished.

Yet, the resistance within society also demonstrates the resilience of educators and students, who, in the face of repression, are creating alternative education systems to protect the freedom of expression and speech in the country. However, the low school and university enrollment rates also paint a worrying picture about the future of the youth in Myanmar. With many educated young people leaving the country, rebuilding the education sector will become increasingly difficult in a future Myanmar that may struggle with a lasting brain drain and generational learning gaps.

Looking forward, many challenges will persist in the educational sector. However, more needs to be done internationally to exert pressure on the military junta to stop attacks on schools and the censorship of education. Further, initiatives which support Non-Formal Education will continue to be crucial in guaranteeing education for the youth. Organizations such as UNICEF, the World Bank, and the British Council are supporting these programs financially and with educational training. For the long-term future of education in Myanmar, it is pivotal that these alternative systems can endure the pressure they are placed under. Whether the country can eventually transition back to democratic governance is currently unpredictable, but the resistance and endurance of students and educators demonstrate a commitment to a better and more free future.

 

 

 

Bibliography

Brown, Martha. “Higher Education in Myanmar: Coup, Conflict, and Educational Crisis.” In Higher Education in Southeast Asia, edited by L. Pe Symaco, 67–89. Leeds: Emerald Publishing Limited, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-367920240000049006.

Dejsupa, Thanyarat. “Myanmar’s Education System Goes Underground.” NHK WORLD, March 30, 2023. https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/backstories/1939/.

Freedom House. Freedom in the World 2024: Myanmar. 2024. https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024.

Frontier. “Inside the Junta’s War on Student Unions.” Frontier Myanmar, May 24, 2022. https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/inside-the-juntas-war-on-student-unions/.

Human Rights Myanmar. “2025 Annual Report.” Human Rights Myanmar, 2025. https://humanrightsmyanmar.org/myanmars-militarisation-of-education/

Maizland, Lindsay. “Myanmar’s Troubled History: Coups, Military Rule, and Ethnic Conflict.” Council on Foreign Relations, January 31, 2022. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/myanmar-history-coup-military-rule-ethnic-conflict-rohingya.

Peck, Grant. “An Airstrike in Central Myanmar Kills up to 22 People at a Bombed School, Reports Say.” AP News, May 12, 2025. https://apnews.com/article/myanmar-airstrike-school-saigaing-resistance-military-00bcff30abb05c1210514b6adc5c6a7f.

Radio Free Asia Burmese. “Nearly 200 Schools in Myanmar Hit by Junta Air Strikes since Military Coup.” RFA Burmese, November 4, 2024. https://www.rfa.org/english/myanmar/2024/11/04/myanmar-schools-air-strikes/.

Radio Free Asia Burmese. “Teacher Sentenced to 20 Years in Prison under Anti-Terror Law.” RFA Burmese, 2023. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/mandalay-teacher-sentenced-07202023035551.html

Reuters. “More than 125,000 Myanmar Teachers Suspended for Opposing Coup.” Reuters, May 23, 2021. https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/more-than-125000-myanmar-teachers-suspended-opposing-coup-2021-05-23/.

UNHCR. Myanmar Emergency. 2024. https://www.unhcr.org/emergencies/myanmar-emergency.

UN News. “Myanmar on the ‘Path to Self-Destruction’ if Violence Does Not End.” UN News, June 11, 2025. https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/06/1164231.

Voices Team. “Examining NFE in Myanmar: Challenges and Insights.” British Council, 2025. https://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/research-under-fire-%E2%80%93-finding-out-about-nfe-troubled-myanmar.

 

 

[1] Radio Free Asia Burmese. “Nearly 200 Schools in Myanmar Hit by Junta Air Strikes since Military Coup.” RFA Burmese, November 4, 2024. https://www.rfa.org/english/myanmar/2024/11/04/myanmar-schools-air-strikes/.

Colonial Relics in Tunisian Education

Colonial Relics in Tunisian Education

Colonial Relics in Tunisian Education

Written by Valeria Romano

INTRODUCTION

Education has a specific function in nation-building. Standardized education leads to the homogenization of representations and reasoning, creating a procrustean-minded population[i]. Education is the first lynchpin to build a cohesive society based on shared values and beliefs, as it allows state administration and legislation to deliver messages and socialize with its people. Schooling systems were deemed essential by colonial powers to maintain dominance in overseas territories. For instance, France established a homogeneous and highly centralized education framework in all its colonies, where educational buildings could not operate without permission and teachers had to follow a national curriculum provided by the colonial body. The goal was to impose French culture on the newly acquired territories.

This article will delve into education functioning as a colonial, oppressive framework. It will focus on the former French colony of Tunisia, presenting its history and describing relics of colonial scholastic legislation. Finally, the essay will look at contemporary academic trends in Tunisia.

 

 

HISTORY OF COLONIZED TUNISIA

In 1881, Tunisia became a French protectorate through a treaty. Although the French government did not appropriate land, France still controlled the region’s political and economic systems (Anon 2025). The French acquired most of the land privately, without direct assistance from authorities. However, the communal lands owned by the tribes, particularly the waqfs (inalienable property), could not be transferred to new owners. To stop this and facilitate the process of land acquisition for the colonial French, new laws enacted in the protectorate allowed for long-term lease (“Modern History of the Arab Countries by Vladimir Borisovich Lutsky 1969,” n.d.).[iii] Although the official language did not change, political communications had to happen in French. Moreover, Tunisian representatives had no autonomy in either international or domestic affairs. Thirteen districts of civil control were established throughout the country, except for the southern territories, which were directly controlled by the French military (idem.).motherland (Anon 2025).[vi]

In the 20th century, independence movements arose around the world. Habib Bourguiba became a prominent leader in the struggle for national autonomy, and in 1934, he founded the Neo Destour Party, which became the key force in the independence movement. After years of protests, negotiations, and increasing international pressure, Tunisia finally achieved independence from France on March 20, 1956, and Habib Bourguiba became the nation’s first president (Anon 2025).[vii]

 

EDUCATION FRAMEWORK

Colonization of Tunisia passed through the establishment of a novel educational framework; in particular, it represented a place where colonial settlers could learn the French language, thus, it represented the first pillar of cultural extension and domination. Educational systems in colonized territories were pivotal in constructing colonial hegemony and strengthening power relationships and control (Shaw 2024).[viii]

France’s colonial policies are composed of three phases: the 19th century, the 1900s until the end of the Second World War, and from 1945 to decolonization. The first stage is characterized by strategies of assimilation to transform Indigenous people into French people, with education seen as the primary tool to achieve such a goal. Cultural societies were degraded through the employment of textbooks teaching Indigenous children their habits and surroundings were inferior compared to the French lifestyle (Feldmann 2016).[ix]

At the beginning of the 20th century, adoption took over assimilation as the guiding concept of the educational framework. Now the curriculum is tailored to fit local environments. Instead of attempting to transform natives into Frenchmen, the goal was to allow them to gradually enhance their customary ways of life. The new strategies emphasized inequalities between the Indigenous masses, who were only granted basic levels of education, and European elites, who could access advanced education.  This adaptation policy stemmed from a heightened perception of European racial superiority and skepticism regarding the abilities of indigenous peoples (Feldmann 2016).[x]

Finally, with the era of independence movements, the education framework returned to being centered around assimilation. France aimed at creating replicas in the colonies’ schooling system. Although enrollment rose significantly, the system continued to be very selective.[xi]

In Tunisia, the proliferation of public schools aimed at political, social, and economic dominance by cultivating a future homogeneous and cohesive population. France strategically did not dismantle the Islamic education system to foster a dual Franco-Arab framework to cultivate a compliant elite and reduce insurgent tendencies (Ben Salah, Chambru, and Fourati 2022).

[xiii][xiv]

 

COLONIAL RELICS AND CONTEMPORARY FRAMEWORK

The legacy of French colonialism still negatively impacts educational outcomes in former colonies. From 1972 to 2012, these countries experienced significantly lower secondary school enrollment rates compared to nations without a colonial past, with gross enrollment rates at least 10 percentage points lower. Adults in these regions attained, on average, 1.6 fewer years of schooling. The effect was even more pronounced for female students, who experienced a 12-percentage point deficit in secondary enrollment, and received nearly 1.8 fewer years of education than their counterparts in other countries (Feldmann 2016). [xv]

[xvii]

 

CONCLUSION

Relics of colonial education policies still seep into post-independence societies. While such reforms may undermine a country’s cultural identity and social strategies, the colonial legacy should not be viewed through a strictly deterministic lens. As a matter of fact, as the case of Tunisia illustrates, correct educational policies, countering spatial inequalities strengthened by the French rules, change the academic outcomes of a country.

 

 

[i] Thomas Hylland Eriksen. 2001. Small Places, Large Issues an Introduction to Social and Cultural Anthropology. London [U.A.] Pluto Press.

[ii] 2025. Carthagemagazine.com. 2025. https://carthagemagazine.com/tunisias-rich-history-from-phoenicians-to-independence.

[iii] “Modern History of the Arab Countries by Vladimir Borisovich Lutsky 1969.” n.d. Www.marxists.org. https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch21.htm.

 

[iv] Idem.

[v]2025. Carthagemagazine.com. 2025. https://carthagemagazine.com/tunisias-rich-history-from-phoenicians-to-independence.

[v]

[vi] “Modern History of the Arab Countries by Vladimir Borisovich Lutsky 1969.” n.d. Www.marxists.org. https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch21.htm.

  1. Carthagemagazine.com. 2025. https://carthagemagazine.com/tunisias-rich-history-from-phoenicians-to-independence.

 

[viii] Shaw, Jilian.  2024. “Research Paper: The Impact of French Colonial Ideology on Educational Institutions in Algeria and Tunisia.” Laidlaw Scholars Network. September 16, 2024. https://laidlawscholars.network/documents/research-paper-the-impact-of-french-colonial-ideology-on-educational-institutions-in-algeria-and-tunisia.

[ix] Feldmann, Horst. 2016. “The Long Shadows of Spanish and French Colonial Education.” Kyklos 69 (1): 32–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/kykl.12102.

[x] Feldmann, Horst. 2016. “The Long Shadows of Spanish and French Colonial Education.” Kyklos 69 (1): 32–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/kykl.12102.

[xi] Feldmann, Horst. 2016. “The Long Shadows of Spanish and French Colonial Education.” Kyklos 69 (1): 32–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/kykl.12102.

[xii] Ben Salah, Mhamed, Cédric Chambru, and Maleke Fourati. 2022. “The Colonial Legacy of Education: Evidence from of Tunisia.” SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4101795.

[xiii] Laidlaw Scholars Network. 2024. “Research Paper: The Impact of French Colonial Ideology on Educational Institutions in Algeria and Tunisia.” Laidlaw Scholars Network. September 16, 2024. https://laidlawscholars.network/documents/research-paper-the-impact-of-french-colonial-ideology-on-educational-institutions-in-algeria-and-tunisia.

[xiv] Ben Salah, Mhamed, Cédric Chambru, and Maleke Fourati. 2022. “The Colonial Legacy of Education: Evidence from of Tunisia.” SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4101795.

[xv] Feldmann, Horst. 2016. “The Long Shadows of Spanish and French Colonial Education.” Kyklos 69 (1): 32–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/kykl.12102.

[xvi] “Addressing the Lingering Effects of Colonial Influence on Educational Institutions.” 2024. CEPR. September 30, 2024. https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/addressing-lingering-effects-colonial-influence-educational-institutions.

[xvii] Fourati, Maleke. 2024. “Addressing the Lingering Effects of Colonial Influence on Educational Institutions.” CEPR. September 30, 2024. https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/addressing-lingering-effects-colonial-influence-educational-institutions.

 

Staff, Editorial. 2024. “Tunisia’s Rich History: From Carthage to Independence.” Carthage Magazine. September 5, 2024. https://carthagemagazine.com/tunisias-rich-history-from-phoenicians-to-independence/.

 

“Modern History of the Arab Countries by Vladimir Borisovich Lutsky 1969.” n.d. Www.marxists.org. https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch21.htm.

 

“Modern History of the Arab Countries by Vladimir Borisovich Lutsky 1969.” n.d. Www.marxists.org. https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch21.htm.

 

Staff, Editorial. 2024. “Tunisia’s Rich History: From Carthage to Independence.” Carthage Magazine. September 5, 2024. https://carthagemagazine.com/tunisias-rich-history-from-phoenicians-to-independence/.

 

“Modern History of the Arab Countries by Vladimir Borisovich Lutsky 1969.” n.d. Www.marxists.org. https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch21.htm.

 

Staff, Editorial. 2024. “Tunisia’s Rich History: From Carthage to Independence.” Carthage Magazine. September 5, 2024. https://carthagemagazine.com/tunisias-rich-history-from-phoenicians-to-independence/.

 

https://laidlawscholars.network/documents/research-paper-the-impact-of-french-colonial-ideology-on-educational-institutions-in-algeria-and-tunisia

 

file:///C:/Users/Utente/Downloads/1801710074.pdf

 

https://laidlawscholars.network/documents/research-paper-the-impact-of-french-colonial-ideology-on-educational-institutions-in-algeria-and-tunisia

 

file:///C:/Users/Utente/Downloads/1801710074.pdf

 

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/kykl.12102

 

https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/addressing-lingering-effects-colonial-influence-educational-institutions

 

Mental Distress and Systematic Destruction: Gazan Schooling during Belligerent Invasions

Mental Distress and Systematic Destruction: Gazan Schooling during Belligerent Invasions

By Valeria Romano

Introduction

As the Palestinian genocide unfolds in front of our eyes, Palestinian people, scholars and journalists around the world reflect on the future of the nation. Israeli troops destroyed civilians’ houses, healthcare buildings, cultural centers, and educational institutions. In October 2024, Palestinian schools- which are now operating as bomb shelters- suffered from 64 raids[i] (Lister, Ibrahim, and Michaelis, 2024). Israeli troops killed more than 38,000 Palestinians since October 7th and the number is most likely higher, given the corpses still under the rubble and the indirectly death causes specifically, people killed by the harsh living conditions created by the attacks[ii] (Al Jazeera, 2024). Of the verified deaths, 44% are school-aged kids, which adds to the 2199 kids killed by Israeli raids between 2000 and 2021[iii](Farajallah, 2022, p. 113). Moreover, at least 17,000 Palestinian kids are living separated from their parents, and more than ten children a day lose their limbs[iv] (Child Rights Committee, 2024). Israeli authorities attack the future of Palestine by aiming at its schools -the core of education, thus of societies and cultures- and its children, who are forced to live through constant warfare. Experiencing war-related traumas highly impacts children’s prospects. This paper will delve into the consequences of chronic warfare on children’s mental health and a country’s academic infrastructure.

The article will start by presenting a brief historical background on the Occupied Palestinian Territories; then, it will unveil the mental health effects of experiencing constant conflict-related stress, connecting it to the case of Gaza -and education. Both Palestinians living in Gaza and Palestinian refugees will be focused upon

 

Background

 

Palestine, officially the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT) is a country in the Levantine. It encompasses the Gaza Strip and the West Bank.

 

From the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages, various populations came and conquered the region, including Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and Mamluks, just to name a few. In 1516, Palestine became part of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans ruled the region until the end of the First World War and Palestinian cities became pivotal commercial sites[v] (The Institute For Palestine Studies, 2016). As the Ottoman Empire was defeated in the war and its land split, the British got a mandate from the League of Nations to establish their administration in the Palestinian region. Such mandate was made on the promise of “the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish  people.”[vi] (Britannica, 2018). The start of British rule correlates with the tensing up of the relationships between different religious groups that during the Ottoman Empire lived together peacefully. The hostilities peaked in 1947, when Palestine was divided into two States: Israel, for Jewish people, and Palestine, for Arab natives. Despite the premises, the partition did not fulfill the peaceful prospects, as already in 1948 Israel started experiencing disputes with nearby territories. The Nakba ended with various armistices, de-facto Israeli borders, and Palestinian displacement, as 400, or more, Palestinian-Arab towns were destroyed[vii] (Britannica, 2024). Since then, people in the OPT experienced one raid after another, and rebelled against them: the Six Days War (1967), the First Intifada (1987–1993), the Al-Aqsa Intifada (2000–2005), the Operation Cast Lead (December 2008 –January 2009), the Operation Pillar of Defense (November 2012), the Operation Protective Edge (July–August 2014), the Unity Intifada (May 2021)[viii] (Farajallah, 2022, p. 113 ).

 

War Trauma and Gazan kids

 

In recent years, scholars have carried out several research projects on the effects of chronic warfare on the mental state of young people. Such consequences depend on various factors: the violence one witnessed, the duration of the conflict, and the socio-cultural meaning of [mental] health. The most common psychological disorder affecting young kids is PTSD – Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder-[ix] (Catani, 2018, pp. 104-105), whereas, in later childhood, externalization of behavioral symptoms is more common, such as conduct defiant disorder[x] (Frounfelker et al, 2019) . Other consequences include sleep problems, panic attacks, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and depression[xi] (idem.). Moreover, war-related trauma also manifests in family and peer interactions, and stigma, especially in post-conflict and post-migration settings. Experiencing chronic warfare causes epigenetic changes leading to potential long-term health and development alterations as living through armed conflict activates unique DNA methylation changes[xii] (Neuroscience News, 2024).

In the case of Palestinian children, researchers have examined the mental aftermath of the Second Intifada and found an increase in aggressiveness of parents towards their children, and vice versa, more frequent nightmares in school-aged kids, and worse grades[xiii] (Farajallah, 2022, p. 114). Children in Gaza witnessed at least three war-related traumatic events and 95% percent of them live in fear, constant grief- and depression, high emotional distress, and more than half have contemplated suicide[xiv] (Ghazy, 2022). The disorders mentioned above relate to impairments in daily functions[xv] (Schöler et al., 2024).

 

Chronic warfare is a multidimensional situation that deteriorates one’s mental health. Studies carried out in Western countries argue for a correlation between the disintegration of one’s psychological sphere and academic achievements. Lower depression and positive psychological well-being relate to better educational performance[xvi] (Duncan et al., 2021). Suffering from PSTD lowers the chances of completing educational milestones, including finishing compulsory education[xvii] ((Vilaplana-Pérez et al., 2020). Children with higher social skills are more likely to graduate[xviii] (Idem.).  Moreover, externalizing symptoms correlates to lower academic achievements, and having attention disorders predicts lower reading development and mathematical skills

Chronic warfare also impacts the structure and the “behind-the-scenes” of schooling. In traditional literature, conflict means fewer financial resources are meant for education improvements and that families cannot afford education-related expenses[xx] (UNICEF, 2016). Teachers may flee, and students stop attending lessons as schools become unsafe sites[xxi] (Idem.). However, these issues do not fully represent the situation in Gaza where nearly 90% of educational buildings have been destroyed or permanently damaged[xxii] (Inger et al., 2024). The attacks continue and Gazan students experience gaps and discontinuity in their education as schools closed in October 2023. Some volunteers have organized basic lessons in tents, but school-aged children are more worried about their next meal but spending their time selling objects in the street and searching for water with their parents[xxiii] (Stack & Shbair, 2024).

 

Palestinian refugees and education

 

The ongoing Israeli attacks on Palestinian territories have forced people to leave their homes, flee to other countries, and become refugees. This precarious status of becoming refugees leads to physical and mental health struggles, which are reflected in the education realm.

 

Scholars Livia Hazer and Gustaf Gredebäck (2023) identify three distinct stages of mental distress related to the status of refugees[xxiv]. The first one is premigration  which it relates to living through war, thus, not having basic conditions met and the disintegration of family ties[xxv] (Idem, 3). The second one, perimigration, arises from the trauma of displacement[xxvi] (Ibid.). Displacement is associated with social and structural trauma(i.e. prolonged bureaucratic migration processes and multiple relocations) interpersonal trauma(i.e. exploitation and discrimination). Moreover, children suffer from the interruption of education. Palestinian refugee kids displaced to the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan attend schools provided by UNRWA. In the West Bank, such educative institutions represent a “safe haven” for kids where they study and play with their friends. However, UNRWA-run schools do not provide shelter from Israeli violence when the two are close[xxvii] (UNRWA, 2023).  For example, pupils attending the school in Jalazone Palestine refugee camp do not feel safe due to its proximity to an illegal Israeli settlement- people living in the refugee camp, including children, have been detained and injured with tear gas and plastic bullets[xxviii] (UNRWA, 2021). Another problem lies in overcrowding, as UNRWA schools are small and resources are insufficient to provide good-quality education to all kids needing it[xxix] (Ibid.). Moreover, refugee kids and their families tackle additional problems regarding finance and documentation which prevent them from accessing higher studies[xxx] (United Nations). This point is particularly burning for Palestinian refugees as the absence of recognized statehood, and, consequently, citizenship rights, complicate the matter. Palestinians do not receive protection from international law when residing outside UNRWA’s operating zones.  As a result, they live through a liminality, compromised of legal ambiguity and invisibility, which affect education, their right to get an education, and the challenges they face while trying to get an education[xxxi] (Ahmed, 2023).  Since October 2023, 100 000 Gazans have escaped to Egypt and reside there without holding the “refugee status”. Thus, they are excluded from receiving humanitarian aid and legal documents and permits necessary for public school enrollment[xxxii] (Guergues, 2024). It is important to note that fleeing, as of November 2024, is incredibly hard and expensive, as the main border crossings are closed, and the few private companies assisting with trespassing demand high sums of money. Students awarded scholarships stumbled in bureaucratic, time-consuming mazes which made evacuation and pursuing education abroad impossible[xxxiii] (Ramadan, 2024).

 

Conclusion

Experts have accused Israel of committing a “scholasticide,” eliminating academic buildings, students, and teachers. The intense and violent raids attack Gazan schooling on two fronts: on the supply side and the demand side. Israeli forces have permanently destroyed most educational buildings, including universities. Furthermore, chronic warfare has tremendous consequences for the survivors, both physical and mental. Emotional distress and psychological disorders impact the daily and future lives of Gazan kids, including their education prospects. Belligerent attacks unleash a vicious cycle of destruction that manifests through the discontinuity of education impacting the next generations. While education appears to be an ancillary problem in a region, where people are struggling to secure water, medicine, and daily nutrition, it remains critical.  The topic cannot be erased from international discourses as its neglect will exacerbate Gaza’s long-term challenges and hinder the prospects of its people.

 

Reference List

 

A day in the life of a Palestine refugee student in the West Bank. (2021). UNRWA. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/features/day-life-palestine-refugee-student-west-bank

 

Al Jazeera. (2024). Gaza toll could exceed 186,000, Lancet study says. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/7/8/gaza-toll-could-exceed-186000-lancet-study-says

 

Britannica. (2024). 1948 Arab-Israeli War | Summary, Outcome, Casualties, & Timeline | Britannica.  https://www.britannica.com/event/1948-Arab-Israeli-War

 

Britannica. (2018). Balfour Declaration | History & Impact. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Balfour-Declaration

 

Catani, C. (2018). Mental health of children living in war zones: a risk and protection perspective. World Psychiatry, 17(1), 104–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20496

 

Child Rights Committee statement on children in Gaza. (2024). OHCHR. https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2024/02/child-rights-committee-statement-children-gaza

Duncan, M. J., Patte, K. A., & Leatherdale, S. T. (2021). Mental Health Associations with Academic Performance and Education Behaviors in Canadian Secondary School Students. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 36(4), 082957352199731. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573521997311

 

Farajallah, I. (2022). Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry, 4(2), 112. https://doi.org/10.4103/wsp.wsp_26_22

 

Frounfelker, R. (2019). Living through war: Mental health of children and youth in conflict-affected areas. International Review of the Red Cross. https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/living-through-war-mental-health-children-and-youth-conflict-affected-areas#footnote7_4a64345

 

Ghazy Randa. (2022). After 15 years of blockade, four out of five children in Gaza say they are living with depression, grief and fear. Save the Children International. https://www.savethechildren.net/news/after-15-years-blockade-four-out-five-children-gaza-say-they-are-living-depression-grief-and

 

Guergues, Azza. (2024). How Are Palestinians in Gaza Fleeing to Egypt? Foreign Policy; Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/08/15/gaza-palestinians-fleeing-egypt-refugees-rafah-crossing-israel-war/

 

Hazer, L., & Gredebäck, G. (2023). The effects of war, displacement, and trauma on child development. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02438-8

 

Inger, I., Sherif, Y., & Egeland, J. (2024). Education under attack in Gaza, with nearly 90% of school buildings damaged or destroyed. Save the Children International. https://www.savethechildren.net/blog/education-under-attack-gaza-nearly-90-school-buildings-damaged-or-destroyed

 

Investing In The Future Through Education of Palestine Refugees: UNRWA Marks International Day of Education. (2023). UNRWA. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/news-releases/investing-future-through-education-palestine-refugees

 

Ahmed, Nasim. (2023). Trapped in a legal black hole, Palestinian refugees in Turkiye dream of going home. Middle East Monitor. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230830-trapped-in-a-legal-black-hole-palestinian-refugees-in-turkiye-dream-of-going-home/

 

Ottoman Palestine. (2016, March 2). The Institute for Palestine Studies. https://digitalprojects.palestine-studies.org/resources/special-focus/ottoman-palestine

 

Ramadan, A. (2024, November 22). In Gaza dreams die, but hope remains. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2024/11/22/in-gaza-dreams-die-but-hope-remains

 

Schöler, N., Gal, G., Wissow, L. S., & Akihiro Seita. (2024). Stress and Trauma Symptoms in Young Palestine Refugee Children Following the May 2021 Escalation in Gaza. JAACAP Open. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaacop.2024.06.003

 

Stack, L., & Shbair, B. (2024). With Schools in Ruins, Education in Gaza Will Be Hobbled for Years. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/06/world/middleeast/gaza-schools-damaged-destroyed.html

 

Unicef. (2016). Violent Conflict and Educational Inequality Literature Review FHI 360 Education Policy and Data Center. https://www.epdc.org/sites/default/files/documents/Conflict%20and%20Inequality%20Literature%20Review%20FINAL.pdf

 

United Nations. Refugee education in crisis: More than half of the world’s school-age refugee children do not get an education. United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/academic-impact/refugee-education-crisis-more-half-worlds-school-age-refugee-children-do-not-get

 

Vilaplana-Pérez, A., Sidorchuk, A., Pérez-Vigil, A., Brander, G., Isoumura, K., Hesselmark, E., Sevilla-Cermeño, L., Valdimarsdóttir, U. A., Song, H., Jangmo, A., Kuja-Halkola, R., D’Onofrio, B. M., Larsson, H., Garcia-Soriano, G., Mataix-Cols, D., & Fernández de la Cruz, L. (2020). Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Educational Achievement in Sweden. JAMA Network Open, 3(12), e2028477. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.28477

 

War Impacts Child Development, Alters DNA – Neuroscience News. (2024). Neuroscience News. https://neurosciencenews.com/neurodevelopment-genetics-war-28091/

 

 

[i] Lister Tim, Dahman Ibrahim, and Tamar Michaelis. Around 70% of deaths in Gaza are women and children, says UN. 2024. https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/09/middleeast/un-warnings-gaza-humanitarian-conditions-intl/index.html

 

[ii] Gaza toll could exceed 186,000, Lancet study says. 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/7/8/gaza-toll-could-exceed-186000-lancet-study-says

 

[iii] Farajallah, Iman. Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry. 2022

 

[iv] Child Rights Committee statement on children in Gaza. 2024. https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2024/02/child-rights-committee-statement-children-gaza

 

[v] Ottoman Palestine. Digital Projects-Institute for Palestine Studies. https://digitalprojects.palestine-studies.org/resources/special-focus/ottoman-palestine

 

[vi] Balfour Declaration. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Balfour-Declaration

 

[vii] 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/1948-Arab-Israeli-War

 

[viii] Farajallah, Iman. Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry. 2022:113. https://www.academia.edu/85404245/Continuous_Traumatic_Stress_in_Palestine_The_Psychological_Effects_of_the_Occupation_and_Chronic_Warfare_on_Palestinian_Children

 

 

[ix] Catani, Claudia. Mental health of children living in war zones: a risk and protection perspective. World Psychiatry 17, 1: 104-105. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5775132/

 

[x] Frounfelker, Rochelle L. et al. Living through war: Mental health of children and youth in conflict-affected areas. International Review of the Red Cross. 2019. https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/living-through-war-mental-health-children-and-youth-conflict-affected-areas#footnote7_4a64345

 

[xi] Idem.

 

[xii] War Impacts Child Development, Alters DNA. Neuroscience News. 2024. https://neurosciencenews.com/neurodevelopment-genetics-war-28091/

 

[xiii] Farajallah, Iman. Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry. 2022: 114. https://www.academia.edu/85404245/Continuous_Traumatic_Stress_in_Palestine_The_Psychological_Effects_of_the_Occupation_and_Chronic_Warfare_on_Palestinian_Children

 

[xiv] Gazhy, Randa. After 15 years of blockade, four out of five children in Gaza say they are living with depression, grief and fear. Save the Children. 2022.

 

[xv] Schöler, Nina,  Gilad Gal, Lawrence S. Wissow, and Akihiro Seit. Stress and Trauma Symptoms in Young Palestine Refugee Children Following the May 2021 Escalation in Gaza. JAACAP Open. 2024: 3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaacop.2024.06.003

 

[xvi] Duncan, Markus, Karen Patte A., & Scott Leatherdale. Mental Health Associations with Academic Performance and Education Behaviors in Canadian Secondary School Students. Canadian Journal of School Psychology 36, 4: 335-357. 2021.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573521997311

 

[xvii] Vilaplana-Pérez, Alba et al. Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Educational Achievement in Sweden. JAMA Network Open 23, 2. 2020. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33289847/

 

[xviii] Ibid.

 

[xix] Ibid.

 

[xx] Violent Conflict and Educational Inequality. UNICEF. 2016. https://www.epdc.org/sites/default/files/documents/Conflict%20and%20Inequality%20Literature%20Review%20FINAL.pdf

[xxi] Ibid.

 

[xxii] Ashing Inger, Yasmine Sherif, and Jan Egeland. Education under attack in Gaza, with nearly 90% of school buildings damaged or destroyed. Save the Children. 2024. https://www.savethechildren.net/blog/education-under-attack-gaza-nearly-90-school-buildings-damaged-or-destroyed

 

[xxiii] Stack, Liam and Bilal Shbair. With Schools in Ruins, Education in Gaza Will Be Hobbled for Years. New York Times. 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/06/world/middleeast/gaza-schools-damaged-destroyed.html

 

[xxiv] Hazer, Livia and Gustaf Gredebäck. The effects of war, displacement, and trauma on child development. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 10, 909. 2023.

 

[xxv] Idem., 3.

 

[xxvi] Ibid.

 

[xxvii] Investing In The Future Through Education of Palestine Refugees: UNRWA Marks International Day of Education.

UNRWA. 2023. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/news-releases/investing-future-through-education-palestine-refugees

 

[xxviii] A day in the life of a Palestine refugee student in the West Bank. UNRWA. 2021. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/features/day-life-palestine-refugee-student-west-bank

 

[xxix] Ibid.

 

[xxx] Refugee education in crisis: More than half of the world’s school-age refugee children do not get an education. United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/academic-impact/refugee-education-crisis-more-half-worlds-school-age-refugee-children-do-not-get

 

[xxxi] Ahmed, Nasim. Trapped in a legal black hole, Palestinian refugees in Turkiye dream of going home. Middle East Monitor. 2023. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230830-trapped-in-a-legal-black-hole-palestinian-refugees-in-turkiye-dream-of-going-home/

 

[xxxii] Guergues, Azza. How 100,000 Palestinians Are Surviving in Egypt Without Refugee Status. Foreign Policy. 2024. https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/08/15/gaza-palestinians-fleeing-egypt-refugees-rafah-crossing-israel-war/

.

[xxxiii] Ramadan, Abdallah. In Gaza dreams die, but hope remains. Al Jazeera. 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2024/11/22/in-gaza-dreams-die-but-hope-remains

 

 

Governmental policies for education in Argentina

Governmental policies for education in Argentina

Introduction

Basic education in Argentina has a long history, marked by important legal milestones and public policies that have shaped the educational system. One of the fundamental pillars of this development was Law 1420 of 1884, which established free and compulsory public primary education (Ministerio de Educación, 2006a). This law aimed to promote social integration and the formation of citizens for the new Argentine Republic, guaranteeing access to education for all children between the ages of 6 and 14 (Ministerio de Educación, 2006a). Law 1420 also emphasised the secular nature of education, an innovative aspect for the time, removing religious influence from the classroom (Ministerio de Cultura, 2020).

In the 20th century, the educational system continued to expand but faced challenges related to regional inequality and funding. During the military dictatorship (1976-1983), there was a repression of academic freedoms and a reduction in education funding. With the return to democracy in the 1980s, the country began to rebuild its educational system.

In 1994, the Argentine Constitution recognised education as a fundamental human right, expanding the State’s responsibilities to guarantee free, quality education. However, it was with the National Education Law of 2006 (Law 26,206) that the Argentine education system was consolidated in its current form. This law extended compulsory schooling to the age of 13, including the initial level (from the age of 4), primary education, and secondary education. The National Education Law of 2006 also reinforced the decentralisation of education, granting greater autonomy to the provinces to manage their schools, although this has generated challenges related to regional equity (Ministerio de Educación, 2006b).

Today, the Argentine government continues to implement inclusion policies, such as the Conectar Igualdad Programme, which seeks to reduce the digital divide, along with efforts to combat school dropout rates at the secondary level (Ministerio de Justicia, 2002). Basic education in Argentina faces challenges, such as regional inequalities, insufficient funding in some provinces, and the need to adapt to contemporary technological demands.

National Education Act of 2006

The 2006 National Education Act was the result of a context of redemocratisation and the search for improvements in the quality of education following a period of political and social instability in Argentina. This historical context began after the end of the civil-military dictatorship (1976-1983), during which the country faced severe political repression, including media censorship, persecution of opponents, and systematic violations of human rights. With the re-establishment of democracy in 1983, Argentina faced the challenge of rebuilding its democratic institutions. In this context, education began to be regarded as a means of strengthening democracy.

During the 1990s, several reforms were implemented, focusing on expanding access to education, training teachers, and updating the curriculum. Of particular note was the 1993 National Education Act (Law 24.195), which established a decentralised model, transferring responsibility for basic education from federal authorities to the provinces. This allowed each province to adapt its educational policy to local needs, although it also generated inequalities between regions (República Argentina, 1993).

In 2005, the Education Financing Law was enacted, establishing that the Argentine State should progressively increase investments in education, science, and technology. Consequently, the Argentine State was to allocate 4.7% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2006, gradually increasing this to 6% by 2010 (Figure 1).

 

Figure 1. Educational Expenditure as a Percentage of GDP (2006-2010).

Source: República Argentina (2005).

In addition to setting investment targets in education, the National Education Law made secondary education compulsory for all students, covering an age range of 12 to 18 years. Furthermore, it sought to guarantee access to free and inclusive higher education, particularly in public universities, which have traditionally been the main means of access to higher education in Argentina.

Another important aspect introduced by the National Education Law was the implementation of Comprehensive Sexual Education (CSE). Sexual education was made compulsory for all schools across the country, from early childhood education to secondary school. The CSE curriculum was developed with the aim of providing a comprehensive education to students, addressing issues of sexuality with an emphasis on sexual diversity, human rights, sexual and reproductive health, and affective relationships.

When analysing the impact of the National Education Law on the development of secondary education for young people and adults, Olivares (2024) concluded that the approval of this law significantly enhanced the growth of secondary education for this demographic, which was already advancing across the country. The law provided a framework that enabled the implementation of new graduation programmes, such as the Plan for Completion of Primary and Secondary Education (FinEs), which achieved extensive national coverage.

Education in the Political-Economic Context

It is necessary to provide a brief political and economic context of Argentina throughout the 21st century, considering the impacts on education. The beginning of the century was marked by a political and economic crisis that started in 1998. In 2002, the crisis ended, but the previous year, then-President Fernando De La Rua was impeached. After this turbulent period, the 2000s were characterised by relatively strong economic growth, under the presidencies of Néstor and Cristina Kirchner. During Cristina Kirchner’s presidency (2007-2015), the government faced protests over tax increases, nationalized private pension funds, and dealt with inflation and capital flight. Despite a recession in 2009, the economy grew in 2010, and inflation remained high, reaching nearly 40% by 2014 (Romig, 2014). The expansion of public education was supported by this period of economic prosperity, allowing for increased investment in the sector.

Later, from 2015, with the government of Macri (2007-2015), Argentina faced an economic crisis characterised by high inflation, currency devaluation, and rising external debt. In December 2015, Macri lifted foreign exchange restrictions, leading to a 30% devaluation of the Peso and rising unemployment (Gannius, 2015). The government’s removal of export restrictions caused price hikes in staple goods, further straining the population. These economic challenges directly impacted government finances and the resources allocated to education.

During Alberto Fernández’s government (2019-2023), the economic crisis worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic, leading to significant financial strain. In 2019, inflation hit a 28-year high of 53.8%. The pandemic severely affected SMEs, with many unable to pay salaries and expenses, resulting in potential closures. By 2023, inflation exceeded 100%, further impacting public sector resources and the broader economy (Gozzi, 2023).

Milei Government and the Current Argentine Education Policies

Following Javier Milei’s election, significant budget cuts were made across various sectors, including a 52% reduction in education funding (Rivas Molina, Centenera, & Lorca, 2024). This is part of Milei’s proposed “Reforma Global de la Educación” (Global Education Reform), which aims to restructure the education system to align with his principles. The reform includes external evaluations for teachers and introduces national exams for high school completion. These changes are seen as a threat to teacher stability, autonomy, and the integrity of educational content, with private entities gaining increasing control (Marron, 2024).

Additional reforms include the promotion of hybrid learning, reduced regulation on teacher conditions, the reinstatement of university fees for foreign students, and diminishing university financial autonomy. Commercial advertisements in schools and restrictions on workers’ right to protest also form part of this package. These changes signal a shift towards a market-driven system, potentially excluding disadvantaged students from higher education. The reforms have faced resistance from unions, student groups, and education advocates who are fighting for a public and inclusive education system (Marron, 2024).

 

Conclusion

Argentina’s educational system has undergone significant transformations over the years, shaped by historical milestones such as Law 1420 and the National Education Law of 2006. These legal frameworks aimed to expand access to education, promote inclusivity, and address regional inequalities, while also responding to the challenges posed by political and economic instability. In particular, the 2006 law marked a pivotal moment by making secondary education compulsory and enhancing the focus on inclusivity, such as the introduction of Comprehensive Sexual Education. However, despite these advances, Argentina’s education system continues to grapple with persistent challenges, such as funding discrepancies, regional disparities, and the need for digital integration.

The recent policy changes under President Javier Milei, including significant budget cuts and reforms aimed at restructuring the education system, represent a sharp departure from the inclusive, state-driven approach of the past. These changes, which include the introduction of external evaluations, hybrid learning models, and a greater role for private entities, have been met with widespread resistance. Critics argue that these reforms could undermine the stability and autonomy of teachers, exacerbate inequalities, and further exclude disadvantaged students from higher education. As such, the ongoing debate surrounding these reforms highlights the tension between market-driven educational models and the push for a more equitable and public education system in Argentina.

References

Gannius, D. (2015). Retenciones: El costo fiscal de la quita dispuesta por Macri. El Destape Web. Retrieved from https://www.eldestapeweb.com/retenciones-el-costo-fiscal-la-quita-dispuesta-macri-n13174

Gozzi, L. (2023). Argentina inflation soars past 100% mark. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-64960385

Marron, L. (2024). How Milei’s measures affect education?. De La Calle. https://delacalle.org/como-afectan-a-la-educacion-las-medidas-de-milei/

Ministerio de Cultura. (2020). Ley 1420: piedra fundacional de la educación argentina. https://www.cultura.gob.ar/ley-1420-el-gran-avance-en-los-derechos-educativos-de-los-ninos-y-nina-10724/

Ministerio de Educación. (2006a). Ley de educación nacional. http://bnm.me.gov.ar/giga1/normas/5421.pdf

Ministerio de Educación. (2006b). Ley de educación nacional (Ley No. 26.206). . https://www.argentina.gob.ar/educacion/validez-titulos/glosario/ley26206

Ministerio de Justicia (2002). Conectar Igualdad. https://www.argentina.gob.ar/justicia/derechofacil/leysimple/educacion-ciencia-cultura/conectar-igualdad

República Argentina (1993) Ley 24.195 – Ley de educación nacional. https://www.argentina.gob.ar/normativa/nacional/ley-24195-17009/texto

República Argentina (2005) Ley de financiamiento educativo. https://www.argentina.gob.ar/normativa/nacional/ley-26075-112976/texto

Rivas Molina, F., Centenera, M. & Lorca, J. (2024). Milei, una motosierra que desguaza el Estado. El País. https://elpais.com/argentina/2024-10-13/milei-una-motosierra-que-desguaza-el-estado.html?utm

Romig, S. (2014). Argentina’s economy contracted, hurt by inflation. The Wall Street Journal.

Olivares, J. (2024). The impact of the National Education Law on the development of secondary education for young people and adults in Argentina. Revista IICE, (55). https://doi.org/10.34096/iice.n55.13289

Italy’s Education Reform: A Return to Tradition Awaiting Approval

Italy’s Education Reform: A Return to Tradition Awaiting Approval
By Beatrice Manicone

The Italian Council of Minister following a proposition of Giorgia Meloni (the Prime Minister) and the Minister of Education and Merit Giuseppe Valditara, has discussed on January 14 , 2025 a new proposed legislation that will introduce new changes to the educational system in Italy (Redazione, 2025b). This was developed by a commission in charge of drafting the new text of the National Directions for the Curriculum for Preschool and First Cycle Education and headed by Loredana Perla, a professor at the “Aldo Moro” University of Bari (Bruno, 2025).

This reform is part of the fourth mission of the National Recovery Plan (PNRR) which is aimed at strengthening education and provide the tools to adapt to the challenges of the modern society (Redazione, 2025b). The text of the reform was published in mid-March 2025, will undergo a public consultation and will be implemented starting from the school year 2026/2027, 15 years after the last school reform (Bruno, 2025). The consultation phase, which will start at the end of March, involves multiple meetings between the commission who drafted the document and professionals’ associations, as well as parents’ student’s associations, and school unions (Bruno, 2025).

Currently, the Italian school system is split into five phases: kindergarten (scuola dell’infanzia), primary school (scuola primaria), lower secondary school (scuola secondaria di primo grado), upper secondary school (scuola secondaria di secondo grado), and university (università). This proposed legislation is tackling principally the students from primary to upper secondary school.

 

What are the Proposed Changes?

The goal of Valditara is to propose a reform that combines tradition and innovation, by highlighting the field of humanities and introducing competences from the early years of school (Redazione, 2025b).

One of the changes concerns the teaching of Latin. Currently, the subject is only offered in certain types of upper secondary schools, namely lyceums, which focus more on academics and theoretical knowledge. With the new reform, Latin will be optional from the second year of lower secondary schools (Lunghi, 2025). In fact, according to Italian Minister of Education and Merits, Latin is fundamental “to communicate and strengthen the awareness of the historical relation that ties Italian as a language to Latin and to underline how Latin constructs a common heritage between European culture” (Ferrandi, 2025).

Secondly, there will be a change in the approach to the teaching of history at all levels. There will be a bigger focus on Western, European, and Italian societies, and consequently their history; furthermore, the mandatory subject geo-storia in upper secondary schools (the combination of geography and history) will be replaced by two distinct subjects, geography and history. Geography will have a focus on the Italian territory and environment, while history will be taught from a Euro-centric point of view and should not be tied to any ideology (Lunghi, 2025). Valditara explains that this focus on the Western history “is fundamental to understand who we are, where we come from, and where we want to go” (Ferrandi, 2025)

A third change that was in the centre of public debate since the publication of the legislation text is the study of the Bible as a mandatory part of the school curriculum (Lunghi, 2025). Since the Lateran Treaty and the concordat of 1929, religion is part of the subjects that are taught in the Italian school system; however, it is an optional subject. With this new reform, a text that is inherently tied to the Christian religion, will be an integral part of the educational programme. To explain this choice, Valditari says that “the Bible, just like the Odyssey and the Iliad, is a great cultural testimony” and “it is at the base of most of our arts, literature, and music” (Ferrandi, 2025).

Other small changes that are proposed in the legislation text are: the introduction of the study of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and statistics in the mathematics curriculum, a more intercultural approach to languages (Redazione, 2025b), the return to the study of calligraphy and cursive, and to rote memorisation (Ferrandi, 2025).

 

What Does the Public Has to Say on the Proposed Legislation?

For some people, the reform proposed by Valditari is something that was long awaited, especially for the reintroduction of Latin as a subject from earlier on. For example, the Senator Ella Bucalo from the right-wing political party Fratelli d’Italia explains that the Italian school will finally return to “its primary role of cultural and social teaching” (Redazione, 2025a).

Others partially agree, like the classicist Luciano Canfora, who supports the teaching of Latin starting from lower secondary school and the separation of history and geography in upper secondary school. However, he believes that teaching history without an ideology is an improper expression, as historical research is one thing, and political ideology is something completely different (Usan, 2025).

Finally, for many others it is just a return to the past waiting for approval, and it is a reform that is largely based on the idolization of the Western culture and history. In a political climate like the current one in Italy, these changes can only lead to an increase in the idea that the Western culture is superior, and that the others will be, at best, considered like ‘exotic’, or at worst, ‘dangerous’ (Paolella, 2025). Furthermore, introducing the study of the Bible as an integral part of the curriculum is a clear political choice dictated by an ideology and justified by saying that it is at the roots of Italian culture (Redazione, 2025a).

 

Conclusion

Even if this reform still must be publicly discussed and might undergo some changes before being implemented, it is undeniably a politically motivated return to the past. The introduction of Latin as an option for lower secondary school, the Bible into the national programs, and the focus on Western history in upper secondary school are symptoms of a line of governance that idolises the past.

 

 

References 

Bruno, E. (2025, March 11). Latino dalla seconda media e bibbia alla primaria: Ecco i programmi di valditara. Il Sole 24 ORE. https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/latino-seconda-media-e-bibbia-primaria-ecco-programmi-valditara-AGUc1pSD?refresh_ce=1

Cimino, L. (2025, March 11). Scuola, ecco il manuale dello studente sovranista. Il Manifesto. https://ilmanifesto.it/scuola-ecco-il-manuale-dello-studente-sovranista

Ferrandi, C. (2025, March 12). Valditara spiega le indicazioni nazionali 2025 per la scuola. Virgilio.it; Virgilio Sapere. https://sapere.virgilio.it/scuola/mondo-scuola/valditara-spiega-le-indicazioni-nazionali-2025-per-la-scuola

Lunghi, M. (2025, January 16). Riforma scuola: Latino alle medie e abolizione della geostoria alle superiori. ecco tutte le novità. Studenti.it; Studenti.it. https://www.studenti.it/riforma-scuola-ecco-tutte-le-novita.html

Marie, V. (2024). The education system in Italy. Expatica Italy. Accessed March 15, 2025

Ministero dell’Educazione e del Merito. (2025). Nuove indicazioni 2025 scuola dell’infanzia e primo ciclo di istruzione materiali per il dibattito pubblico. https://www.mim.gov.it/documents/20182/0/Nuove+indicazioni+2025.pdf/cebce5de-1e1d-12de-8252-79758c00a50b?version=1.0&t=1741684578272

Paolella, S. (2025, March 12). Solo l’Occidente conosce la storia. Scomodo.

Redazione. (2025a, January 15). Nuove indicazioni nazionali di valditara, le reazioni: C’è chi lo loda per il coraggio, per altri riporta la scuola agli anni cinquanta. Tecnica Della Scuola. https://www.tecnicadellascuola.it/nuove-indicazioni-nazionali-valditara

Redazione. (2025b, January 15). Valditara e il latino alle medie, la scuola italiana sta per cambiare. Demografica. https://demografica.adnkronos.com/popolazione/valditara-scuola-riforma-2025-novita/

Usan, T. (2025, January 15). Canfora sulla riforma della scuola: “Giusto studiare il latino. Ma la storia ideologica non esiste.” La Stampa. https://www.lastampa.it/cronaca/2025/01/15/news/luciano_canfora_riforma_scuola-14940213/

 

Enhancing Educational Opportunities for Indigenous Children in Peru

Enhancing Educational Opportunities for Indigenous Children in Peru

By Maria Zarcos Gonzalez

Peru’s rich culture is reflected by its incredibly diverse historical and linguistic heritage. 59 languages belonging to 11 or 12 distinct linguistic groups, with Quechua and Aymara being the most commonly spoken among indigenous groups (D’Andrea, 2007). The country saw a historical shift from monolingualism in indigenous languages to bilingualism or monolingualism in Spanish (Castellano) since the 1940s (ibid). Almost half (47%) of Peru’s population is Indigenous, with significant ethnic diversity including 45% Indigenous, 37% mixed race (Indigenous and white, or offensively historically known as mestizo), and 15% White, Black, Japanese, and Chinese among others (Ibid).

Access to properly funded education systems for Indigenous children is essential as a fundamental right, a tool for empowerment, cultural preservation, and equality. For indigenous groups to be such a big population group, they still suffer great inequalities between them and non-indigenous populations. These are deeply rooted in historical, social, and economic contexts. As OXFAM (n.d, paragraph 3) explains, “the extreme poverty rate of populations with a primary language other than Spanish is three times greater than the national average and in the same rural areas extreme poverty is almost twice as high for those who do not speak Spanish as a first language.”

 

The current state of education for Indigenous children in Peru

A key to analysing the issues amongst a specific group inside the education system is to look at dropout rates, statistics on enrollment, or illiteracy rates. Regarding enrollment, Quechua students generally show lower achievement levels due to various barriers, including limited access to quality education (D’Andrea). Only 10% of Indigenous youth pursue academia beyond secondary education (Bullock et al, 2021) indicating a significant challenge in educational attainment, motivation, and possibly issues of accessibility to economic resources, dependency, or transport facilities. This is highlighted by the fact that 40% of Peru’s youth population is considered highly vulnerable, addressing pressing matters of social exclusion and low socioeconomic status as a main barrier (Ibid).

Geographical and economic barriers to education remain one of the most important impediments to address. Remoteness, lack of infrastructure, and insufficient transport services routes lead to great difficulties in reaching schools. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the severity of these issues along with the digital divide (Zavala and Franco, 2022). While projects have been launched by the government to close this breach (Intercultural bilingual education, or IBE), underlying socioeconomic inequalities remain largely unaddressed. For example, the level of quality in education is highly different than that in urban areas. There is a notable lack of teachers who serve indigenous populations, and a missing professional development plan to train them to do so (Ibid).

While IBE is a resolutive initiative, there remains a high cultural disconnect between formal education and Indigenous traditions. Historical challenges such as systemic marginalisation have developed to create a longstanding environment of cultural biases in educational policies and the composition of a Eurocentric curriculum that overlooks indigenous language and knowledge systems (Morales-Lopez et al., 2024).

Key challenges in addressing educational equity include poverty and economic insecurity in indigenous communities, and raising awareness to promote government reforms which at the moment are limited to producing resolutive instead of revolutionary projects. As with many other social issues around the world, gender disparity remains a point of focus to tackle. Women face significant obstacles in education and employment, with only 53% of girls graduating high school in comparison to 66% of the boys – also a worrying figure in itself- (). Additionally, their illiteracy rate in 2019 was at 8%, contrasting with government data which establishes it is at 3% for adults (Monroy et al, 2022). Among rural women, the rate is 23% (Ibid). Girls and women still bear the brunt of domestic responsibilities, impacting their time and future opportunities.

 

Positive Developments and Ongoing Initiatives

Andersson and Risberg’s (2022:14) investigation explains how  “educational and career choices result from socialization processes learned from childhood. Women who have been taught to take on the caring role in the home tend to work in occupations with similar tasks. The learned masculine and feminine behaviours are reflected also when the choice of profession arises”. It is therefore imminent that developments in education look at changing behaviours and boosting other lifestyle motivations to achieve higher levels of employment and reduce poverty. Community organisations like Dispurse work on teaching women literacy and skills to combat and improve employment opportunities (Ibid). STEM education initiatives for women looking to diversify their labour market and opportunities since there is already a high level of women working in humanities jobs, which pay significantly less (Andersson and Risberg, 2022).

The Aprendo en casa (Learn at home) initiative started by Peru’s Ministry of Education aims to address issues of accessibility and equity using multiple broadcasting channels to maximise reach and include indigenous language as a main pillar. The project was founded during the pandemic but has continued beyond the immediate COVID-19 response. For those children who have limited access to radio frequencies or cable, teachers provide materials which are handed in person to them, and some even record broadcast lessons onto USB drives (Zavala and Franco, 2022). This flexibility in adaptation enhances accessibility to education greatly, bridging the digital divide.

The element of language inclusion is part of an intercultural bilingual education (IBE) program, where Spanish is taught as a second language (Zavala and Franco, 2022). This promotes inclusivity and ensures a long-lasting future for indigenous languages and cultures. Nevertheless, the assumption that this facilitation to speak Spanish is not needed by students in rural areas turns out to be a lack of IBE education for them. They are not afforded the same educational resources and diversity.

Community-led education initiatives emphasizing indigenous knowledge and traditions are a key tool to boost motivation to go to school and learn. Morales-Lopez et al (2024) highlight the success of localised education programs that integrate Indigenous languages and traditional knowledge into the curriculum. These initiatives involve the active participation of a range of community members, giving high importance to the elders and what they can teach the younger generations about their heritage and history.

 

Recommendations for Action

There is plenty of room to improve the current landscape of education for Indigenous communities in Peru, and this is a call to action for governments, NGOs, and global stakeholders to support inclusive and equitable education for Indigenous children in Peru. Much work is needed on investing in infrastructure and teacher training tailored to indigenous needs. Holistic approaches to collaborating with indigenous communities to co-design culturally relevant curricula are key. Involving Indigenous leaders and educators in decision-making processes ensures that educational initiatives align with the community’s values and needs. The integration of traditional knowledge aids in language preservation and ensures an inclusive educational environment.

In order to preserve the Indigenous language and culture in Peru, it is essential to tackle the education sector and broaden its accessibility. Implementing monitoring and evaluation systems as well as enhancing legal framework and access to justice is a key to creating long-standing progress.

Education must be reaffirmed as a fundamental right for all children. School attendance is positively related to higher social inclusion and enhanced social-emotional competencies (Arapa et al, 2021). It is therefore important to promote an inclusive academic culture, with efforts to balance work and life responsibilities for women in academia. This involves creating a supportive environment that fosters freedom and a work-life balance which will attract and retain women in academic careers in the future (OECD, 2022). Community-led education initiatives emphasizing indigenous knowledge and traditions are a great holistic way of moving forward, paired with withstanding and revolutionary government action.

References

Ames, P. (2012). Language, culture, and identity in the transition to primary school: Challenges to indigenous children’s rights to education in Peru. International Journal of Educational Development, 32. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0738059311001635

Andersson, M., & Risberg, M. (2022). Challenges for women’s labor market participation and educational opportunities in Peru [Bachelor’s thesis, University of Gothenburg]. https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/handle/2077/73902/Matilda%20Andersson%20Minna%20Risberg%20Challenges%20for%20women%27s%20labor.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y

Arapa, B., et al. (2021). The relationship between access to pre-school education and the development of social-emotional competencies: Longitudinal evidence from Peru. International Journal of Educational Development, 87, 1–9. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059321001358?casa_token=dARoOMxxye4AAAAA:Dwkhsf-cQqU4VI7jxwzEvVXDe24Lb3lFRmR-16pHOsWMHORXKluJTlKyTIT3bpW0Wyk4kd2l

Bullock, A. R. L., Stumpf, B. C., & Chang, K. B. T. (2021). Virtues, resilience, and well-being of Indigenous youth in Peru. International Journal of Child and Adolescent Resilience, 8(1), 98–109. https://doi.org/10.7202/1077720ar

D’Andrea, M. (2007). Peru: Inequality of education for indigenous groups, the neglected class. The Canadian Foundation for the Americas (FOCAL).

Monroy, C., et al. (2022). Education in Peru. https://wenr.wes.org/2022/03/education-in-peru-2

Morales-Lopez, G., Rodriguez, C. A., & Ramos, M. D. (2024). Challenges and developments in multilingual education in indigenous Amazonian communities of Peru. Research and Advances in Education, 3(1), 33–43. https://doi.org/10.56397/RAE.2024.01.04

OECD. (2022). Gender equality in Peru: Towards a better sharing of paid and unpaid work. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/e53901b5-en

Zavala, V., & Franco, V. (n.d.). Siempre a distanciados: Ideology, equity, and power. Retrieved from https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/81042956/CALICO_39_1_004_art_Back_79_102-libre.pdf

Saudi Arabia opens doors: expatriates on dependent visas now eligible to work in the education and health sector

Saudi Arabia opens doors: expatriates on dependent visas now eligible to work in the education and health sector

Written by Iasmina Stoian

Introduction

Saudi Arabia has reached a milestone in its ongoing economic and social development plan. A new policy has been adopted allowing expatriates on dependent visas to work in the education and health sectors under specific conditions. In the past, during the Saudi Nationalization Program that emerged in 1985, also known as the Nitaqat program, the expatriates were largely restricted from the labour market, as employment for nationals was prioritized. Moreover, in 2017, it was imposed an Expat Dependent fee, requiring expatriated employed in the country to pay a supplementary tax for their dependents or companions. Thus, the life of expats was heavily impacted by this new change of policies.

Moreover, in Saudi Vision 2030, another governmental program launched in 2016, which will be further explained below, this new policy reflects a strategic move towards addressing the labour shortages, improving the quality of education in the country, and helping the better integration of expatriates in Saudi society and culture.

This new policy not only helps the labour shortages and fill the empty vacancies but also helps create a more inclusive and competitive labour market, especially in critical sectors, one example being the education sector, thus aligning perfectly with the targets enshrined in the Saudi Vision 2030.

Labour regulations, Saudization and Saudi Vision 2030

In the past, Saudi Arabia had strict regulations concerning expatriates living on their spouse’s visa and their dependents. Traditionally, they were not permitted to work in the country, as under the Saudization program, also known as Nitaqat, the focus was on giving the chance on job opportunities to Saudi nationals. This program was trying to reduce the dependency on foreign labour by incentivizing the employment of Saudi nationals in different sectors, firstly in private sectors, and later to others. Thus, in 2011 the Ministry of Labor introduced a resolution requiring all private companies in Saudi Arabia to meet specific quotas for employing Saudi nationals, with a compliance deadline set for 2013. However, by 2014, a significant number of expatriates had left the country, and over 200,000 private firms were shut down for failing to adhere to the Saudization or Nitaqat regulations. At the moment, two-thirds of country’s population comprises of Saudi nationals, while one-third comprises of expatriates (Javed 2024).

On the other hand, in 2016 Vision 2030 was launched, a plan that aimed at the diversification of Saudi Arabia economically, socially and culturally, and reduction of its dependency on oil. This project also aimed to address the labour shortage issue, through attracting more internationals to fill those vacancies. This newly adopted policy that allows expatriate dependents to work in the education and health systems is therefore a reflection of this ambitious vision.

Policy details – eligibility, application process and specific requirements

The new policy allowing expatriate dependents to work in country-specific sectors has strict eligibility criteria and steps that need to be followed for a successful application. To be eligible, dependents must fulfil certain age and qualification requirements, depending on the field, and must also possess a valid residency permit or visa. For example, expatriates over 18 years old who have a valid visa and are either a spouse, a relative of the spouse, or a legal guardian can start an application. The required educational accreditations depend on the position that is filled, and can be, for example, positions for teachers or administrative positions. Those professional accreditations must also be recognized by the Saudi authorities.

Applications for obtaining a work permit are processed through Ajeer, an electronic system for controlling temporary employment for expatriates. To this end, employers are allowed to issue work permits through the Ajeer platform provided that all legal requirements are fulfilled and the nature of employment falls within the goals of the Saudization program. This process further ensures that the dependent does not occupy jobs that need to be reserved for Saudi nationals, for which the regulations of Nitaqat will be applied.

As already mentioned, some posts in the education sector require that employees, depending on the post they would fill, should pass certain qualification examinations or become members of related professional bodies. These measures will ensure that expatriate dependents entering into the workforce are indeed qualified to contribute positively to the sector and maintain the standards expected in Saudi Arabian educational institutions. It is a very considered balance of inclusion and regulation, reflective of the broader efforts of the Kingdom to modernize its workforce while still prioritizing opportunities for its citizens.

Impacts on the education sector

This new policy has a significant impact on the country’s educational landscape. By addressing labour shortages, this policy aims to alleviate the strain on these crucial sectors, which have long struggled with staffing gaps. The influx of skilled expatriate teachers can enhance the quality of education by bringing diverse perspectives and expertise, enriching the learning environment for students.

However, cultural integration can impose a challenge. Cultural integration remains a concern, as expatriates must navigate and adapt to Saudi cultural norms while delivering education. Additionally, there may be competition with local workers, potentially leading to tensions over job opportunities and resources. The balance between leveraging the benefits of a diverse workforce and ensuring fair opportunities for Saudi nationals will be crucial. Effective management of these dynamics will be essential to maximize the positive impact on the education sector while addressing any potential issues that arise from this policy shift.

Impacts on the social and economic sectors

Apart from the educational landscape, there is also the broader economic and social consequence of granting expatriates who enter on a dependent visa the green light for working in the education and health sectors. This extends to enabling the larger family income of expatriate families by increasing the core budget they have at home, which then increases consumer spending and continues to help jolt the local economy forward.

Additionally, allowing dependents to work helps promote the better integration of expatriate families within the local community socially, improving a sense of belonging and increasing their participation in social and community activities. The result can be more mileage in cultural interaction and understanding between the expatriates and Saudi nationals. Opening such doors to expatriates shows that, in many ways, Saudi Arabia is moving in the right direction as far as economic and social development in the region.

Conclusions

In conclusion, the new policy in Saudi Arabia became the cornerstone towards addressing labour shortages and improving the quality of these two important sectors. This big step has also aligned with the broader objectives of Saudi Vision 2030 in bringing diversity into the economy, ensuring social integration, and fostering cultural exchange between expatriates and Saudi nationals. Though there are also challenges, such as cultural adaptation and competition with local workers, careful management and regulation will be needed to maximize the benefits. Overall, the policy underlines Saudi Arabia’s determination to modernize its workforce and create an inclusive, dynamic labour market.

1165 words

 

Keywords: Vision 2030, Nitaqat, expatriates, visa, education, labour market, health, Saudi Arabia, culture

 

References:

Mental Distress and Systematic Destruction: Gazan Schooling during Belligerent Invasions

Mental Distress and Systematic Destruction: Gazan Schooling during Belligerent Invasions

By Valeria Romano

Introduction

As the Palestinian genocide unfolds in front of our eyes, Palestinian people, scholars and journalists around the world reflect on the future of the nation. Israeli troops destroyed civilians’ houses, healthcare buildings, cultural centers, and educational institutions. In October 2024, Palestinian schools- which are now operating as bomb shelters- suffered from 64 raids[i] (Lister, Ibrahim, and Michaelis, 2024). Israeli troops killed more than 38,000 Palestinians since October 7th and the number is most likely higher, given the corpses still under the rubble and the indirectly death causes specifically, people killed by the harsh living conditions created by the attacks[ii] (Al Jazeera, 2024). Of the verified deaths, 44% are school-aged kids, which adds to the 2199 kids killed by Israeli raids between 2000 and 2021[iii](Farajallah, 2022, p. 113). Moreover, at least 17,000 Palestinian kids are living separated from their parents, and more than ten children a day lose their limbs[iv] (Child Rights Committee, 2024). Israeli authorities attack the future of Palestine by aiming at its schools -the core of education, thus of societies and cultures- and its children, who are forced to live through constant warfare. Experiencing war-related traumas highly impacts children’s prospects. This paper will delve into the consequences of chronic warfare on children’s mental health and a country’s academic infrastructure.

The article will start by presenting a brief historical background on the Occupied Palestinian Territories; then, it will unveil the mental health effects of experiencing constant conflict-related stress, connecting it to the case of Gaza -and education. Both Palestinians living in Gaza and Palestinian refugees will be focused upon

 

Background

Palestine, officially the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT) is a country in the Levantine. It encompasses the Gaza Strip and the West Bank.

From the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages, various populations came and conquered the region, including Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and Mamluks, just to name a few. In 1516, Palestine became part of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans ruled the region until the end of the First World War and Palestinian cities became pivotal commercial sites[v] (The Institute For Palestine Studies, 2016). As the Ottoman Empire was defeated in the war and its land split, the British got a mandate from the League of Nations to establish their administration in the Palestinian region. Such mandate was made on the promise of “the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish  people.”[vi] (Britannica, 2018). The start of British rule correlates with the tensing up of the relationships between different religious groups that during the Ottoman Empire lived together peacefully. The hostilities peaked in 1947, when Palestine was divided into two States: Israel, for Jewish people, and Palestine, for Arab natives. Despite the premises, the partition did not fulfill the peaceful prospects, as already in 1948 Israel started experiencing disputes with nearby territories. The Nakba ended with various armistices, de-facto Israeli borders, and Palestinian displacement, as 400, or more, Palestinian-Arab towns were destroyed[vii] (Britannica, 2024). Since then, people in the OPT experienced one raid after another, and rebelled against them: the Six Days War (1967), the First Intifada (1987–1993), the Al-Aqsa Intifada (2000–2005), the Operation Cast Lead (December 2008 –January 2009), the Operation Pillar of Defense (November 2012), the Operation Protective Edge (July–August 2014), the Unity Intifada (May 2021)[viii] (Farajallah, 2022, p. 113 ).

 

War Trauma and Gazan kids

In recent years, scholars have carried out several research projects on the effects of chronic warfare on the mental state of young people. Such consequences depend on various factors: the violence one witnessed, the duration of the conflict, and the socio-cultural meaning of [mental] health. The most common psychological disorder affecting young kids is PTSD – Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder-[ix] (Catani, 2018, pp. 104-105), whereas, in later childhood, externalization of behavioral symptoms is more common, such as conduct defiant disorder[x] (Frounfelker et al, 2019) . Other consequences include sleep problems, panic attacks, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and depression[xi] (idem.). Moreover, war-related trauma also manifests in family and peer interactions, and stigma, especially in post-conflict and post-migration settings. Experiencing chronic warfare causes epigenetic changes leading to potential long-term health and development alterations as living through armed conflict activates unique DNA methylation changes[xii] (Neuroscience News, 2024).

In the case of Palestinian children, researchers have examined the mental aftermath of the Second Intifada and found an increase in aggressiveness of parents towards their children, and vice versa, more frequent nightmares in school-aged kids, and worse grades[xiii] (Farajallah, 2022, p. 114). Children in Gaza witnessed at least three war-related traumatic events and 95% percent of them live in fear, constant grief- and depression, high emotional distress, and more than half have contemplated suicide[xiv] (Ghazy, 2022). The disorders mentioned above relate to impairments in daily functions[xv] (Schöler et al., 2024).

 

Chronic warfare is a multidimensional situation that deteriorates one’s mental health. Studies carried out in Western countries argue for a correlation between the disintegration of one’s psychological sphere and academic achievements. Lower depression and positive psychological well-being relate to better educational performance[xvi] (Duncan et al., 2021). Suffering from PSTD lowers the chances of completing educational milestones, including finishing compulsory education[xvii] ((Vilaplana-Pérez et al., 2020). Children with higher social skills are more likely to graduate[xviii] (Idem.).  Moreover, externalizing symptoms correlates to lower academic achievements, and having attention disorders predicts lower reading development and mathematical skills

Chronic warfare also impacts the structure and the “behind-the-scenes” of schooling. In traditional literature, conflict means fewer financial resources are meant for education improvements and that families cannot afford education-related expenses[xx] (UNICEF, 2016). Teachers may flee, and students stop attending lessons as schools become unsafe sites[xxi] (Idem.). However, these issues do not fully represent the situation in Gaza where nearly 90% of educational buildings have been destroyed or permanently damaged[xxii] (Inger et al., 2024). The attacks continue and Gazan students experience gaps and discontinuity in their education as schools closed in October 2023. Some volunteers have organized basic lessons in tents, but school-aged children are more worried about their next meal but spending their time selling objects in the street and searching for water with their parents[xxiii] (Stack & Shbair, 2024).

 

Palestinian refugees and education

The ongoing Israeli attacks on Palestinian territories have forced people to leave their homes, flee to other countries, and become refugees. This precarious status of becoming refugees leads to physical and mental health struggles, which are reflected in the education realm.

Scholars Livia Hazer and Gustaf Gredebäck (2023) identify three distinct stages of mental distress related to the status of refugees[xxiv]. The first one is premigration  which it relates to living through war, thus, not having basic conditions met and the disintegration of family ties[xxv] (Idem, 3). The second one, perimigration, arises from the trauma of displacement[xxvi] (Ibid.). Displacement is associated with social and structural trauma(i.e. prolonged bureaucratic migration processes and multiple relocations) interpersonal trauma(i.e. exploitation and discrimination). Moreover, children suffer from the interruption of education. Palestinian refugee kids displaced to the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan attend schools provided by UNRWA. In the West Bank, such educative institutions represent a “safe haven” for kids where they study and play with their friends. However, UNRWA-run schools do not provide shelter from Israeli violence when the two are close[xxvii] (UNRWA, 2023).  For example, pupils attending the school in Jalazone Palestine refugee camp do not feel safe due to its proximity to an illegal Israeli settlement- people living in the refugee camp, including children, have been detained and injured with tear gas and plastic bullets[xxviii] (UNRWA, 2021). Another problem lies in overcrowding, as UNRWA schools are small and resources are insufficient to provide good-quality education to all kids needing it[xxix] (Ibid.). Moreover, refugee kids and their families tackle additional problems regarding finance and documentation which prevent them from accessing higher studies[xxx] (United Nations). This point is particularly burning for Palestinian refugees as the absence of recognized statehood, and, consequently, citizenship rights, complicate the matter. Palestinians do not receive protection from international law when residing outside UNRWA’s operating zones.  As a result, they live through a liminality, compromised of legal ambiguity and invisibility, which affect education, their right to get an education, and the challenges they face while trying to get an education[xxxi] (Ahmed, 2023).  Since October 2023, 100 000 Gazans have escaped to Egypt and reside there without holding the “refugee status”. Thus, they are excluded from receiving humanitarian aid and legal documents and permits necessary for public school enrollment[xxxii] (Guergues, 2024). It is important to note that fleeing, as of November 2024, is incredibly hard and expensive, as the main border crossings are closed, and the few private companies assisting with trespassing demand high sums of money. Students awarded scholarships stumbled in bureaucratic, time-consuming mazes which made evacuation and pursuing education abroad impossible[xxxiii] (Ramadan, 2024).

 

Conclusion

Experts have accused Israel of committing a “scholasticide,” eliminating academic buildings, students, and teachers. The intense and violent raids attack Gazan schooling on two fronts: on the supply side and the demand side. Israeli forces have permanently destroyed most educational buildings, including universities. Furthermore, chronic warfare has tremendous consequences for the survivors, both physical and mental. Emotional distress and psychological disorders impact the daily and future lives of Gazan kids, including their education prospects. Belligerent attacks unleash a vicious cycle of destruction that manifests through the discontinuity of education impacting the next generations. While education appears to be an ancillary problem in a region, where people are struggling to secure water, medicine, and daily nutrition, it remains critical.  The topic cannot be erased from international discourses as its neglect will exacerbate Gaza’s long-term challenges and hinder the prospects of its people.

 

Reference List

 

A day in the life of a Palestine refugee student in the West Bank. (2021). UNRWA. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/features/day-life-palestine-refugee-student-west-bank

 

Al Jazeera. (2024). Gaza toll could exceed 186,000, Lancet study says. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/7/8/gaza-toll-could-exceed-186000-lancet-study-says

 

Britannica. (2024). 1948 Arab-Israeli War | Summary, Outcome, Casualties, & Timeline | Britannica.  https://www.britannica.com/event/1948-Arab-Israeli-War

 

Britannica. (2018). Balfour Declaration | History & Impact. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Balfour-Declaration

 

Catani, C. (2018). Mental health of children living in war zones: a risk and protection perspective. World Psychiatry, 17(1), 104–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20496

 

Child Rights Committee statement on children in Gaza. (2024). OHCHR. https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2024/02/child-rights-committee-statement-children-gaza

Duncan, M. J., Patte, K. A., & Leatherdale, S. T. (2021). Mental Health Associations with Academic Performance and Education Behaviors in Canadian Secondary School Students. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 36(4), 082957352199731. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573521997311

 

Farajallah, I. (2022). Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry, 4(2), 112. https://doi.org/10.4103/wsp.wsp_26_22

 

Frounfelker, R. (2019). Living through war: Mental health of children and youth in conflict-affected areas. International Review of the Red Cross. https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/living-through-war-mental-health-children-and-youth-conflict-affected-areas#footnote7_4a64345

 

Ghazy Randa. (2022). After 15 years of blockade, four out of five children in Gaza say they are living with depression, grief and fear. Save the Children International. https://www.savethechildren.net/news/after-15-years-blockade-four-out-five-children-gaza-say-they-are-living-depression-grief-and

 

Guergues, Azza. (2024). How Are Palestinians in Gaza Fleeing to Egypt? Foreign Policy; Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/08/15/gaza-palestinians-fleeing-egypt-refugees-rafah-crossing-israel-war/

 

Hazer, L., & Gredebäck, G. (2023). The effects of war, displacement, and trauma on child development. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02438-8

 

Inger, I., Sherif, Y., & Egeland, J. (2024). Education under attack in Gaza, with nearly 90% of school buildings damaged or destroyed. Save the Children International. https://www.savethechildren.net/blog/education-under-attack-gaza-nearly-90-school-buildings-damaged-or-destroyed

 

Investing In The Future Through Education of Palestine Refugees: UNRWA Marks International Day of Education. (2023). UNRWA. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/news-releases/investing-future-through-education-palestine-refugees

 

Ahmed, Nasim. (2023). Trapped in a legal black hole, Palestinian refugees in Turkiye dream of going home. Middle East Monitor. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230830-trapped-in-a-legal-black-hole-palestinian-refugees-in-turkiye-dream-of-going-home/

 

Ottoman Palestine. (2016, March 2). The Institute for Palestine Studies. https://digitalprojects.palestine-studies.org/resources/special-focus/ottoman-palestine

 

Ramadan, A. (2024, November 22). In Gaza dreams die, but hope remains. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2024/11/22/in-gaza-dreams-die-but-hope-remains

 

Schöler, N., Gal, G., Wissow, L. S., & Akihiro Seita. (2024). Stress and Trauma Symptoms in Young Palestine Refugee Children Following the May 2021 Escalation in Gaza. JAACAP Open. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaacop.2024.06.003

 

Stack, L., & Shbair, B. (2024). With Schools in Ruins, Education in Gaza Will Be Hobbled for Years. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/06/world/middleeast/gaza-schools-damaged-destroyed.html

 

Unicef. (2016). Violent Conflict and Educational Inequality Literature Review FHI 360 Education Policy and Data Center. https://www.epdc.org/sites/default/files/documents/Conflict%20and%20Inequality%20Literature%20Review%20FINAL.pdf

 

United Nations. Refugee education in crisis: More than half of the world’s school-age refugee children do not get an education. United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/academic-impact/refugee-education-crisis-more-half-worlds-school-age-refugee-children-do-not-get

 

Vilaplana-Pérez, A., Sidorchuk, A., Pérez-Vigil, A., Brander, G., Isoumura, K., Hesselmark, E., Sevilla-Cermeño, L., Valdimarsdóttir, U. A., Song, H., Jangmo, A., Kuja-Halkola, R., D’Onofrio, B. M., Larsson, H., Garcia-Soriano, G., Mataix-Cols, D., & Fernández de la Cruz, L. (2020). Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Educational Achievement in Sweden. JAMA Network Open, 3(12), e2028477. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.28477

 

War Impacts Child Development, Alters DNA – Neuroscience News. (2024). Neuroscience News. https://neurosciencenews.com/neurodevelopment-genetics-war-28091/

 

 

 

 

 

[i] Lister Tim, Dahman Ibrahim, and Tamar Michaelis. Around 70% of deaths in Gaza are women and children, says UN. 2024. https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/09/middleeast/un-warnings-gaza-humanitarian-conditions-intl/index.html

 

[ii] Gaza toll could exceed 186,000, Lancet study says. 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/7/8/gaza-toll-could-exceed-186000-lancet-study-says

 

[iii] Farajallah, Iman. Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry. 2022

 

[iv] Child Rights Committee statement on children in Gaza. 2024. https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2024/02/child-rights-committee-statement-children-gaza

 

[v] Ottoman Palestine. Digital Projects-Institute for Palestine Studies. https://digitalprojects.palestine-studies.org/resources/special-focus/ottoman-palestine

 

[vi] Balfour Declaration. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Balfour-Declaration

 

[vii] 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/1948-Arab-Israeli-War

 

[viii] Farajallah, Iman. Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry. 2022:113. https://www.academia.edu/85404245/Continuous_Traumatic_Stress_in_Palestine_The_Psychological_Effects_of_the_Occupation_and_Chronic_Warfare_on_Palestinian_Children

 

 

[ix] Catani, Claudia. Mental health of children living in war zones: a risk and protection perspective. World Psychiatry 17, 1: 104-105. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5775132/

 

[x] Frounfelker, Rochelle L. et al. Living through war: Mental health of children and youth in conflict-affected areas. International Review of the Red Cross. 2019. https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/living-through-war-mental-health-children-and-youth-conflict-affected-areas#footnote7_4a64345

 

[xi] Idem.

 

[xii] War Impacts Child Development, Alters DNA. Neuroscience News. 2024. https://neurosciencenews.com/neurodevelopment-genetics-war-28091/

 

[xiii] Farajallah, Iman. Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry. 2022: 114. https://www.academia.edu/85404245/Continuous_Traumatic_Stress_in_Palestine_The_Psychological_Effects_of_the_Occupation_and_Chronic_Warfare_on_Palestinian_Children

 

[xiv] Gazhy, Randa. After 15 years of blockade, four out of five children in Gaza say they are living with depression, grief and fear. Save the Children. 2022.

 

[xv] Schöler, Nina,  Gilad Gal, Lawrence S. Wissow, and Akihiro Seit. Stress and Trauma Symptoms in Young Palestine Refugee Children Following the May 2021 Escalation in Gaza. JAACAP Open. 2024: 3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaacop.2024.06.003

 

[xvi] Duncan, Markus, Karen Patte A., & Scott Leatherdale. Mental Health Associations with Academic Performance and Education Behaviors in Canadian Secondary School Students. Canadian Journal of School Psychology 36, 4: 335-357. 2021.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573521997311

 

[xvii] Vilaplana-Pérez, Alba et al. Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Educational Achievement in Sweden. JAMA Network Open 23, 2. 2020. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33289847/

 

[xviii] Ibid.

 

[xix] Ibid.

 

[xx] Violent Conflict and Educational Inequality. UNICEF. 2016. https://www.epdc.org/sites/default/files/documents/Conflict%20and%20Inequality%20Literature%20Review%20FINAL.pdf

[xxi] Ibid.

 

[xxii] Ashing Inger, Yasmine Sherif, and Jan Egeland. Education under attack in Gaza, with nearly 90% of school buildings damaged or destroyed. Save the Children. 2024. https://www.savethechildren.net/blog/education-under-attack-gaza-nearly-90-school-buildings-damaged-or-destroyed

 

[xxiii] Stack, Liam and Bilal Shbair. With Schools in Ruins, Education in Gaza Will Be Hobbled for Years. New York Times. 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/06/world/middleeast/gaza-schools-damaged-destroyed.html

 

[xxiv] Hazer, Livia and Gustaf Gredebäck. The effects of war, displacement, and trauma on child development. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 10, 909. 2023.

 

[xxv] Idem., 3.

 

[xxvi] Ibid.

 

[xxvii] Investing In The Future Through Education of Palestine Refugees: UNRWA Marks International Day of Education.

UNRWA. 2023. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/news-releases/investing-future-through-education-palestine-refugees

 

[xxviii] A day in the life of a Palestine refugee student in the West Bank. UNRWA. 2021. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/features/day-life-palestine-refugee-student-west-bank

 

[xxix] Ibid.

 

[xxx] Refugee education in crisis: More than half of the world’s school-age refugee children do not get an education. United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/academic-impact/refugee-education-crisis-more-half-worlds-school-age-refugee-children-do-not-get

 

[xxxi] Ahmed, Nasim. Trapped in a legal black hole, Palestinian refugees in Turkiye dream of going home. Middle East Monitor. 2023. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230830-trapped-in-a-legal-black-hole-palestinian-refugees-in-turkiye-dream-of-going-home/

 

[xxxii] Guergues, Azza. How 100,000 Palestinians Are Surviving in Egypt Without Refugee Status. Foreign Policy. 2024. https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/08/15/gaza-palestinians-fleeing-egypt-refugees-rafah-crossing-israel-war/

.

[xxxiii] Ramadan, Abdallah. In Gaza dreams die, but hope remains. Al Jazeera. 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2024/11/22/in-gaza-dreams-die-but-hope-remains

 

 

[CG1]in order to avoid using “paper” again

 

[CG2]I understand what you mean but for clarity you should clearly state who is them. Or maybe you want to say they rebelled against the raids so then add an “against” them

 

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33289847/

 

[CG4]I would rather rephrase this as:  including their educational prospects. Would leave out “as well”

Too Hot to Learn: How Climate Extremes Are Disrupting Education in India

Too Hot to Learn: How Climate Extremes Are Disrupting Education in India

Written by Shennara Lisapaly 

Schools Close as Temperatures Continues to Rise

In April 2025, as the summer season barely began, over 20 cities across North India reported temperatures above 42°C. For example, Delhi experienced a high of 38.2°C in April 2025, which is 3.1 degrees above the norm. Other states such as Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Bihar all faced similar scorching temperatures. Yet the India Meteorological Department (IMD) warned that the worst was yet to come (ET Online, 2025). The extreme heat, humidity, and poor air quality foster an unsafe and uncomfortable environment for students to learn and participate in. This extreme weather condition spreading across India ultimately forced many schools to shut down for the safety of the students and staff.

However, this isn’t a one-off emergency. It’s part of a growing crisis. This widespread school shutdown did not only happen this year, but it also occurred in previous years, 2024 and 2023. With climate extremes, such as heatwaves, floods, pollution, and cyclones, it is clear that climate change is no longer a future concern—it is already disrupting learning for millions of students in South Asia alone.

Climate and Education Are Deeply Connected

According to a 2024 UNICEF report, over 128 million students in South Asia risk facing educational disruptions due to climate extremes. India had the highest number of students affected by climate-related school disruptions in 2024, at a staggering 54,784,029 students (UNICEF, 2024).

The effects of climate change go beyond temporary school closures. The Hindustan Times reported that even when schools remain open, extreme weather lowers attendance and weakens learning capacities (Tulsyan, 2025). When floods occur, travel becomes more difficult, especially in rural and low-lying areas. On especially hot or polluted days, students struggle to focus. This results in a drop in academic performance and growing learning losses.

Heatwaves Are Jeopardising Student Health

This summer, India faces another scorching season. According to a Republic World article from May 2025, the government announced widespread school closures across multiple states as temperatures soared (Chanotra, 2025). The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) predicted intense heatwave conditions in regions including Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and many others. In response, states implemented early or extended summer vacations, with reopening dates ranging from mid-June to early July, depending on the weather conditions.

In Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, the temperature often exceeded 45°C, creating an insufferable and unsafe environment for students to learn in (Siddeeq, 2025). Teachers also reported that many students experienced heat-related illnesses, such as heat stroke and heat exhaustion. A teacher from the Rajasthan Barmer district had even said that the indoor temperature of his school at one point reached 47°C. School infrastructure, especially in rural areas, struggled to cope. Many buildings lack proper ventilation, reliable cooling systems, and access to clean drinking water. The loss of school days due to extreme heat and poor infrastructure not only disrupts students’ education but also hits marginalised communities the hardest. Especially children who depend on schools for daily meals and a safe, stable environment (OWSA, 2025).

 

Floods and Rains Wash Away Learning Opportunities

It’s not just the heat. Heavy monsoon rains in 2025 also caused widespread school closures (Jolly, 2025). In Delhi-NCR, schools were shut due to severe waterlogging. In Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, the risk of floods and landslides forced district administrations to cancel classes. In Jharkhand’s Jamshedpur, authorities closed schools until July 10 after heavy rains flooded low-lying areas and advised a shift to online classes. However, in certain communities, this is not possible since digital access is limited or nonexistent.

Climate Impact on the Most Vulnerable

While the climate crisis affects all children, its impact is far from equal. According to One World South Asia (OWSA), adolescent girls are particularly vulnerable. They reported that more interruptions to education lead to higher dropout rates, lower academic performance, and child marriage and/or labor rates, which disproportionately affect girls (OWSA, 2025). OWSA cites that the UNICEF report warns us that the climate-related disruption to learning is undoing the years of progress made in promoting girls’ education.

What Needs to Change

Experts say India must climate-proof its education system to improve learning outcomes and to aid long-term development. The Hindustan Times outlined five key steps governments can take to drive meaningful and impactful change.

  1. Data collection. Schools and state departments need to track how climate shocks affect learning. This will help design targeted policies.
  2. Invest in heat- and flood-resilient infrastructure—cool roofs, solar fans, ventilation, and water access.
  • Plan for learning continuity. Schools should have flexible calendars, online options, and community-based learning hubs during climate emergencies.
  1. Include climate education in the curriculum. Students must understand climate risks and be prepared to adapt and lead to change.
  2. The government, civil society, and the private sector must work together to make education climate resilient.

These recommendations offer a roadmap for creating a more robust, inclusive, and productive education system. One that can withstand the pressures of an increasingly unpredictable and hostile climate. Of course, implementing such changes will not come without challenges and obstacles, but they are essential. Without action, students in vulnerable regions across India will continue to face school closures, unsafe conditions, and disrupted learning.

A Call to Action

India’s classrooms are on the frontlines of the climate crisis. Every year, more children are losing days, weeks, or months of school due to extreme weather. The risks are growing, and so are the inequalities. Protecting education must be a core part of India’s climate strategy. That means more than building roads and floodwalls. It means building schools that can withstand the storms ahead.

If the classroom becomes unsafe, the future becomes uncertain. India must adapt to the current climate crisis and climate-proof its schools before it’s too late. This requires urgent political will, sustained investment, and a long-term vision. Rather than having the education system remain a victim of the climate crisis, these changes can transform it into a powerful tool for resilience.

 

Reference List: 

Chanotra, Nimakshi. 2025. “Heatwave Forces Early School Closures across India: A State-By-State Breakdown.” Republic World. May 19, 2025. https://www.republicworld.com/education/schools-closed-in-multiple-states-across-india-check-the-list. 

ET Online. 2025. “Heatwave Grips India: 20+ Cities Cross 42°c in First Week of April, Experts Warn of Worse Ahead.” The Economic Times. Economic Times. April 7, 2025. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/new-updates/heatwave-grips-india-20-cities-cross-42c-in-first-week-of-april-experts-warn-of-worse-ahead/articleshow/120051541.cms. 

Jolly, Akshita. 2025. “Schools Closed: Heavy Monsoon Rain Disrupts Life across India, Schools Shut in Several States.” Jagranjosh.com. Jagran Josh. July 10, 2025. https://www.jagranjosh.com/articles/schools-closed-due-to-heavy-rainfall-list-of-states-affected-1800000865-1. 

OWSA Staff. 2025. “Climate Hazards Disrupt Education for Millions in South Asia, UNICEF Report Reveals Stark Situation in India – OneWorld SouthAsia.” OneWorld SouthAsia. January 27, 2025. https://owsa.in/climate-hazards-disrupt-education-for-millions-in-south-asia-unicef-report-reveals-stark-situation-in-india/. 

Siddeeq, Sara. 2025. “How Extreme Heat in India Is Disrupting Education.” Climate Impacts Tracker Asia. April 8, 2025. https://www.climateimpactstracker.com/how-extreme-heat-in-india-is-disrupting-education/. 

Tulsyan, Arpan. 2025. “Heatwaves, Floods, and Smog: Unprepared Education System Is Leading to Learning Losses – Hindustan Times.” Hindustan Times. April 21, 2025. https://www.hindustantimes.com/ht-insight/climate-change/heatwaves-floods-and-smog-unprepared-education-system-is-leading-to-learning-losses-101745226192022.html. 

UNICEF. The Climate Crisis Is a Child Rights Crisis: South Asia Spotlight. New York: United  

Nations Children’s Fund, 2024. https://www.unicef.org/media/170626/file/Global-snapshot-climate-related-school-disruptions-2024.pdf.