Educational Challenges in the U.S. Virgin Islands

Written by Aoibhínn Kiely

Introduction

The U.S. Virgin Islands are situated in the Caribbean Sea, located some 64 to 80 kilometres east of Puerto Rico. The region consists of three larger islands, St. Croix, St. Thomas and St. John, and approximately 50 smaller cays and islets, amassing a total area of 133 square miles. Due to the inviting climate, the U.S. Virgin Islands attracts a large number of tourists each year, however tourism is one of the region’s only economic resources, and financial aid and funding is provided by the United States. The region is at risk for hurricanes, with an average of 5 passing the region yearly, and in September of 2017 the territory sustained extreme damage from a barrage of two Category 5 hurricanes within the span of two weeks. Irma and Maria together destroyed virtually all crops of St Croix and an estimated 90% of buildings in the territory were destroyed or severely damaged.  

Education in the U.S. Virgin Islands is compulsory and government-run schools operate for free. The Virgin Islands Department of Education runs 21 elementary schools, six middle schools and six high schools between two school districts spread between the three main islands. The territory also sports one university, The University of the Virgin Islands, a public liberal arts based university.  However, a great number of students attend private schools, and most of the families who relocate to the U.S. Virgin Islands opt to send their children to private or religious affiliated schools, who also charge a tuition fee. Educational challenges in the U.S. Virgin Islands are characterised by poor funding, staff shortages, and struggling infrastructure, causing huge barriers to adequate education for the working class population of the islands.  

Unsafe working (and learning) conditions  

The vast majority of those who relocate to the U.S. Virgin Islands will decide to send their children to a private school to receive their education. With the Peter Gruber International Academy, situated on St. Thomas, requiring annual tuition ranging from $13,150 to $21,000 excluding materials and accreditation fees, it is starkly obvious that this option is not for everyone. However, given the state of current affairs in public schools, there is no doubt as to why parents would go out of pocket to avoid their children attending the region’s public schools. In September 2023, teachers across St. Croix walked out of their classrooms in protest, claiming that the conditions they are expected to work in are untenable and entirely unsafe. The protesting teachers mention not only the long-standing issues of underfunding for the schools, but also sweltering temperatures that have to be endured in classrooms, many of which have no clean drinking water. This region, famous for its balmy temperatures, has schools operating without air conditioning. The response to this protest has been to implement schedule adjustments, enforcing earlier dismissal and shortened class periods for the schools on St. Croix. In effect, poor funding has caused policy makers to opt for less schooling hours as opposed to providing adequate equipment to the schools. 

Teachers are not the only individuals enraged by these conditions, as students took to the streets in protest of the unsafe conditions they are expected to learn and grow under. Students from two historically rivalling highschools put their differences aside as they called for immediate action from leaders. Devastating heat and lack of air conditioning were only the tip of the iceberg for these students, as placards being held high mentioned termites, mould, leaking ceilings, and other structural ailments concerned with the physical school buildings. Further prompting the action was the stark lack of funding for equipment and maintenance workers. School facilities in the U.S. Virgin Islands have sustained damage not only from the hurricanes in 2017, but also many in the 90s and less severe instances in 2021 and 2022. As a result the infrastructure must constantly be repaired and seen to, which these students believe is not being upheld on the side of maintenance due to exceedingly poor funding. One of the schools in which the students came from, Educational Complex High School, is used as a hurricane shelter, which the students reiterated, poor maintenance is not only an educational disadvantage but a genuine health and safety hazard for those living on the island. The students stood in unison demanding answers to where the large budgets dedicated to the Department of Education have been going, and hoping together that their action will spare future students on St. Croix from the conditions they have to currently endure.  

Where have all the teachers gone? 

Dr. Dionne Wells-Hedrington, commissioner of the Virgin Islands Department of Education cannot stress enough the risk that classrooms will not be filled when the 2023/2024 school year begins. With learning deficiencies in the region presenting themselves as a challenge at present, the 127 teachers reaching retirement age represent a looming loss to the educational system on the islands and a concerning prospect for the students. The school year 2022/2023 saw 33 teachers separate themselves from the department, expanding the 43 pre-existing teaching vacancies in the region. The strategy being employed by the department in an attempt to tackle this growing issue that has been used for years, to try to recruit teachers from outside the territory to fill the gaps. The Department has been driven to launch a special appeal to recruit degree holders and retired teachers to fill substitute teacher positions. The situation remains dire however with Wells-Hedrington informing lawmakers last year that nearly 200 teachers and support staff retired or resigned from the already struggling public school education system between June 2022 and August 2022. Furthermore, the number of non-certified professionals working in the public schools on the Islands far outnumber those certified, with only 228 certified professionals in comparison to 610 non-certified professionals.  Emmanuella Perez-Cassius, the Board of Educations Vice Chairwoman, is adamant that educators need to receive higher pay, consistent curriculum mandates and better working conditions.  

A storm of mental distress 

The Board of Educations Vice Chairwoman further remarked that schools are sorely lacking formal trauma and mental health alert systems for children who need aid with serious issues. The Islands align with national data, indicating that children in America are in the midst of a mental health crisis. St. Croix Foundation reported in 2021 that 22.5% of middle schoolers had “seriously considered suicide” and 33.5% of high school students “felt so sad or hopeless almost every day for two or more weeks that they stopped doing some usual activities”. As this data was collected in the aftermath of the aforementioned hurricanes, it was seen as a cry for help and a call to action for the community of the Islands, with special emphasis on the education system to support children struggling in the region.  

In July 2023 Perez-Cassius made it clear that schools are not up to date with critical information that can protect children from a mental health crisis. As a result she called for direct and ongoing communication between the Department of Education and Department of Health, as well as other organisations concerning treatments, school services, and awareness for students with escalating mental health concerns. The Vice Chairwoman additionally called for the implementation of training on trauma based interventions and approaches. Studies have suggested that students on the islands experience PTSD at a significantly higher level than the general population, and a lack of intervention from the education system is an unfortunate shortfall that devastatingly lets students, and teachers alike, down.  

Leadership for change  

Although there is no absence of challenges faced by those pursuing education through the system in the U.S. Virgin Islands, these very individuals have shown resilience and perseverance time and time again in the face of challenges. The bravery of the protesting teachers and the voices of strong leaders such as Perez-Cassius and Dr.  Wells-Hedrington are not going unseen and unheard as attention is being drawn to these areas of concern. Furthermore, the children in the region have stepped up and shown that they will no longer allow for unsafe conditions to be tolerated. These students have shown responsibility and dedication in a way that no child should ever have to. Their passion and drive through their protests and their demands of lawmakers have made waves in their communities and it will be impossible for those in power to ignore their rightly placed rage.  After the terror of Irma and Maria the people of the U.S. Virgin Islands have worked hard to rebuild themselves and their education system, demonstrations of strength that will stand to the region with any hope.  

Featured image by “Back to school/ Picture by MChe Lee via Unsplash” 

 

References 

 

 

Educational challenges in the United Kingdom

School children reading red books

Written by Maria Tapias Serrano

Picture by Thirdman via Pexels

The United Kingdom is one of the countries that welcomes the largest number of international students into its institutions, especially to its renowned universities. However, the system is not without its challenges, dominated by budget cuts in state-funded education, endemic inequalities across society that permeate the education system, and the attainment gap between rich and poor students, which at the time of writing stands at 3.2%. [i][ii]

The structure of the education system varies slightly across the UK, as it is a matter of the government in each country: England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Generally, there are five stages of education: early years or pre-school, primary, secondary, further education and higher education. All children in the age of compulsory education – from 5 to 16 – are entitled to a free place at a state school, which can be more or less elitist. As of January 2023, there were around 9 million pupils in state-funded schools, and over 2 million were eligible for free school meals. Free school meals are used to identify children from disadvantaged backgrounds.[iii]

Over the past decade, the UK has been governed by the Conservative Party, now led by Prime Minister Rishi Sunak. Recently, the country has dealt with the exit of the UK from the European Union – a process known as ‘Brexit’ – and the Covid-19 pandemic. The pandemic left millions of children in lockdown and exacerbated existing inequalities. This exposed the shortcomings of the education system and perpetuated the attainment gap.

Budget cuts

Underfunding is one of the most pressing problems in the British educational system. This places a tremendous amount of strain on state-funded schools. The Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS) reports that the 2019–2020 school year saw the most significant reduction in per-pupil spending in more than 40 years. This leads to increasing class numbers and student-teacher ratio, a shortage of resources, and even a reduction in teaching hours. There has reportedly been a 258% increase in secondary students in classes with 36 or more students since 2010. The provision of tailored and individualised attention is compromised by class sizes and reductions in support programmes, particularly for children with special educational needs. [iv]

Additionally, teachers are taking a big toll due to the budget cuts, as schools are forced to downsize staff. This results in teachers taking on extra duties and working an average of 55 hours per week. The working conditions and increasing pressure to provide individualised teaching without enough means are making some teachers reconsider their career path, with approximately half of the teachers in maths, sciences and languages quitting after five years. Moreover, they often seem to prefer working in private institutions, with a less diverse student population to attend, which requires less additional workload. [v]

Cuts to the budget also make some schools’ limited access to technology worse. The shift to distant schooling due to the pandemic exposed and exacerbated already-existing technologically-induced educational disparities. Children from higher poverty and economically unstable neighbourhoods have disproportionately inadequate access to technology.  In the modern world, a lack of a laptop or an Internet connection puts one’s access to opportunities at risk. Private schools typically have superior resources to equip their pupils with the most recent technology than state schools, even offering equipment that the students can take home. The government should try to provide state schools with adequate funding that responds to evolving educational needs. [vi]

Picture by Yan Krukau via Pexels

While it is true that since 2020, the effects of COVID-19 have put extra pressure on the government, civil society actors and journalists demand the government to do better. For instance, the NGO 1 Hour Life highlights that of the £15 billion recommended by the education recovery commissioner for England, the government only established a £1.4 billion Covid catch-up budget. [vii] Furthermore, Sonia Sodha reflects in The Guardian that the government’s policies have neglected the child’s best interests both before and after the pandemic. [viii]

Inequality and the attainment gap

Social inequalities have a significant effect on children and young people’s education. The UK is a country where this is particularly prominent, with a noticeable difference in performance in children from poor and wealthier backgrounds. From their early years, children are affected by the disproportion of resources. State schools in more impoverished areas, like some inner-city areas, are more affected by budget cuts as government spending per student continues to decrease. Implementation of support programmes is also inequal in some regions across England. For example, the North-East region saw a smaller implementation of Covid support programmes than schools in the South. Regarding ethnicity, in a country that is well-known for its multicultural urban areas, it’s generally students from Gypsy, Roma and Irish Traveller backgrounds who struggle the most because of higher illiteracy and language barriers among their parents. Some children with an uncertain legal status after Brexit or seeking asylum might also experience additional barriers to accessing education. [ix][x]

A family’s wealth and well-being have a significant impact on students. Almost one in 50 children across the UK miss more than half the time they should be in school because families can’t afford transportation costs, uniforms, school supplies, or school meals. This is more than double from before the pandemic. [xi] Despite the free school meals allowance, around a third of children experiencing poverty are not entitled to it. Some children report not eating anything during school time, hiding at lunchtime to avoid watching their peers eat or being shamed for receiving the allowance. This is because an apparent differentiation between children with free school meals and the rest is made: they are only entitled to a limited selection of items at the canteen. The UK should perhaps take notice of other European countries that provide standardised meals for all students. [xii] Controlling canteen prices is also important so that child health stops being a profitable market to exploit and that children can develop properly.

The UK must work harder to bridge the attainment gap between poor and rich students. In its voluntary national review of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals, the government promised that no student would be left behind and fair opportunities would be ensured regardless of socioeconomic differences. [xiii] In the long term, social inequalities that the education system fails to redress are life-changing, resulting in higher drop-outs, lower grades, lower than average earnings, increased criminality, and less presence in high-powered positions.

 In the UK, where you study matters. And where you end up studying after compulsory education is highly influenced by where you study your primary and secondary education, which in turn is related to your family’s wealth. For example, in 2020, 8 elite schools, including two state schools, sent more pupils to Oxford and Cambridge than almost 3,000 other UK state schools. Although the number of young people accessing university continues to increase, socioeconomic inequalities continue to be perpetuated again in the higher education system. Students not graduating from universities with a perceived ‘legacy’ and prestige typically miss out on high-powered jobs because of prejudice from employers in the country. [xiv] ‘Legacy’ and ‘prestige’ immediately point to the University of Cambridge and the University of Oxford. They’re not the only ones, however. There are 24 universities, including these, which belong to the Russell Group – perhaps the closest version to a British Ivy League.

British Prime Ministers and cabinet members historically attended specific colleges in these institutions. Before that, they are typically educated in all kinds of non-state, privately funded institutions with prestige. A total of 30 out of 57 Prime Ministers have been educated at Oxford, and 20 have been educated at Eton College, which has a yearly fee of £48,000. The elitism that persists in positions of power and the most influential law or accounting firms is an example of the uneven spread of opportunities to enter the most prestigious positions. It also shows the profound classism that persists in the country, where people born in certain wealth and in certain areas have access to significantly better-funded education. [xv]

Even at a higher education level, England has one of the highest university fees in Europe: around £9,000 a year. Students typically take government loans to subsidise the cost of their studies. On the other hand, Scotland provides free university tuition for undergraduate courses for all Scottish students, aiming to achieve an inclusive education. Tuition fees, however, are not the only costs associated with university studies: with an exploitative renting market and rising living costs, 63% of students struggle to pay for their living expenses, and two in five consider dropping out of their courses. [xvi]

Students playing croquet at Eton College in the 1970s / Picture by Annie Spratt via Pexels

Final remarks

It is worth mentioning that other important issues should be addressed when talking about issues in the British education system. These are topics like discrimination, increasing bullying, and prominent peer-on-peer sexual harassment. These need to be explored more deeply in further articles. This article has focused on endemic inequalities in the education system in the UK to highlight how the profoundly classist system works. At the moment, the UK proves to be a country with endemic inequalities that affect where students study, the quality of their education due to poor funding, and the ongoing struggles due to costs associated with education and the increasing cost of living. It seems to be a system that rewards those students born and graduated into privilege.

Under the Conservative government, it is a country that has been continuously cutting down on public spending on education and public services, which would redress the effects of poverty and reduce the attainment gap. An argument can be made that addressing the digital divide, the inequalities within school populations, and redressing budget cuts is highly expensive. And it is. Nonetheless, education is a fundamental right, crucial for the development of children and the basis for a democratic society. A country that only rewards those who can afford private education and private services is doomed to be ruled by elites and have endemic inequalities. Currently, pressing challenges persist in the UK to bridge the attainment and opportunities gap between children and young people from different socioeconomic backgrounds.

References

  1. 1 Hour Life. (2022, February 3). 5 Challenges in Education Today in the UK. https://1hourlife.org/challenges-in-education/
  2. Adams, R. (2023, October 17). Bolton graduates miss out on top jobs because of prejudice, says vice-chancellor. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2023/oct/17/university-of-bolton-graduates-miss-out-on-top-jobs-because-of-prejudice-says-vice-chancellor
  3. Brown, L. (2023, February 8). National Student Accommodation Survey 2023 – Results. Save The Student. https://www.savethestudent.org/accommodation/national-student-accommodation-survey-2023.html
  4. Department for Education. (2023). Education system in the UK. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/219167/v01-2012ukes.pdf
  5. Equality and Human Rights Commission. (2022). Submission to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child: Children’s Rights in Great Britain, 56-75.
  6. Explore education statistics. (2023, September 12). Academic year 2022/23: Key stage 2 attainment. UK Government Department for Education, Explore education statistics. https://explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk/find-statistics/key-stage-2-attainment
  7. HM Government. (2019). Voluntary National Review of progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5d2f3d6aed915d2feeac49f4/UKVNR-web-accessible1.pdf
  8. O’Connell, R; Brannen, J. (2023, October 20). A Portuguese lesson on free school meals. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2023/oct/20/a-portuguese-lesson-on-free-school-meals
  9. Race Disparity Unit. (2023). Ethnicity facts and figures. UK Government, Race Disparity Unit. https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/
  10. Sodha, S. (2023, October 22). Empty classroom seats reveal ‘long shadow’ of Covid chaos on Britain’s children. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/oct/22/empty-classroom-seats-reveal-long-shadow-of-covid-chaos-on-children
  11. Studee. (2023). 10 most popular countries for international students. https://studee.com/guides/10-most-popular-countries-for-international-students/
  12. The Week. (2022, October 25). Prime ministers and private schools. https://theweek.com/news/education/958294/prime-ministers-and-private-schools

End Notes

[i] Studee. (2023). 10 most popular countries for international students. https://studee.com/guides/10-most-popular-countries-for-international-students/

[ii] Explore education statistics. (2023, September 12). Academic year 2022/23: Key stage 2 attainment. UK Government Department for Education, Explore education statistics. https://explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk/find-statistics/key-stage-2-attainment

[iii] Department for Education. (2023). Education system in the UK. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/219167/v01-2012ukes.pdf

[iv] Weale, S. (2023, October 18). Cuts could reduce education in England to ‘bare bones’, headteachers say. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2023/oct/18/risk-of-education-in-england-being-reduced-to-bare-bones-headteachers-say

[v] 1 Hour Life. (2022, February 3). 5 Challenges in Education Today in the UK. https://1hourlife.org/challenges-in-education/

[vi] 1 Hour Life. (2022, February 3). 5 Challenges in Education Today in the UK. https://1hourlife.org/challenges-in-education/

[vii] 1 Hour Life. (2022, February 3). 5 Challenges in Education Today in the UK. https://1hourlife.org/challenges-in-education/

[viii] Sodha, S. (2023, October 22). Empty classroom seats reveal ‘long shadow’ of Covid chaos on Britain’s children. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/oct/22/empty-classroom-seats-reveal-long-shadow-of-covid-chaos-on-children

[ix] Equality and Human Rights Commission. (2022). Submission to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child: Children’s Rights in Great Britain, 56-75

[x] Race Disparity Unit. (2023). Ethnicity facts and figures. UK Government, Race Disparity Unit. https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/

[xi] Sodha, S. (2023, October 22). Empty classroom seats reveal ‘long shadow’ of Covid chaos on Britain’s children. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/oct/22/empty-classroom-seats-reveal-long-shadow-of-covid-chaos-on-children

[xii] O’Connell, R; Brannen, J. (2023, October 20). A Portuguese lesson on free school meals. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2023/oct/20/a-portuguese-lesson-on-free-school-meals

[xiii] HM Government. (2019). Voluntary National Review of progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5d2f3d6aed915d2feeac49f4/UKVNR-web-accessible1.pdf

[xiv] Adams, R. (2023, October 17). Bolton graduates miss out on top jobs because of prejudice, says vice-chancellor. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2023/oct/17/university-of-bolton-graduates-miss-out-on-top-jobs-because-of-prejudice-says-vice-chancellor

[xv] The Week. (2022, October 25). Prime ministers and private schools. https://theweek.com/news/education/958294/prime-ministers-and-private-schools

[xvi] Brown, L. (2023, February 8). National Student Accommodation Survey 2023 – Results. Save The Student. https://www.savethestudent.org/accommodation/national-student-accommodation-survey-2023.html

Educational Challenges in San Marino

The flag of San Marino, cropped

Written by Eliana Riggi

Background: COVID-19 pandemic impact on school systems around the world

The coronavirus disease, emerging in the first months of 2020, spread rapidly across countries, and it constituted an unprecedented challenge with which the entire world had to grapple. The pandemic had all-encompassing consequences for societies and states. Not only did it put a strain on national healthcare systems, but it also affected vital policy areas such as education.

Policies and frameworks were adapted to the new reality for national educational systems to be resilient. Governmentsdevised and implemented ad hoc measures to hamper the transmission of the virus and guarantee the right to education simultaneously. School closures soon became a standard practice among countries, and they peaked in April 2020, affecting over 1.6 billion learners worldwide.

To ensure educational continuity, states transitioned from in-person instruction towards distance teaching and learning, extensively using tools such as broadcast media (radio, TV), take-home material packages and online learning platforms. Due to the emergency context, the transition was swift in many cases, but it did require tailored and adequate support to teachers, students and families. Furthermore, quarantines and virus containment measures led to reformed learning assessment methods and high-stakes examinations.

When a lessening of COVID-19 allowed for school reopening, the Ministry of Education coordinated with the rest of government representatives to make that safe. By and large, schools began to reopen in September 2020. Despite this, countries decided on criteria governing future school closures.

Inevitably, the pandemic had adverse effects on learning opportunities and effectiveness. Not every student accessed remote learning because of child labour, connectivity gaps and gender inequality. Thereby, minimum learning losses were unavoidable. In an attempt to mitigate these losses, funds were provided to boost internet access and, at a later time, remedial programmes were introduced. Even after school reopening, an increase in dropout and disengagement rates was observed, especially for students belonging to low-income or rural households. [i]

Mental issues affecting learners:  a call to action

Therefore, it seems evident that returning to in-person instruction is not enough to make COVID-19 consequences disappear. What is more, school is not only about learning, but it is also where personal development takes place. Schooling helps children and youth forge their values, ideas, interests, social skills and career aspirations, to name but a few. For this reason, the well-being of learners is essential to safeguard their right to education.

Undoubtedly, the mental health of students, teachers, parents and caregivers has been impacted by the pandemic.  Not only did the pandemic cause mental health issues, but it also exacerbated those already present.

School closures, social isolation, health risks and the death of loved ones have had severe psychological implications on learners. Indeed, children and youth were deprived of the interpersonal dimension of everyday life and could only enjoy face-to-face relationships with family members unless they were infected.  A screen became the only way to communicate and to see faces without masks. [ii] Moreover, the stress linked to economic instability and educational disruptions fostered a feeling of uncertainty about studies, aspirations, and school-to-work transition, creating the perception of a hopeless future. [iii]   

Critically, students were subjected to pandemic restrictions, but they did not engage in the decision-making processes. Even though they should have had a say in education policies, they could not easily make their voice heard, undermining their self-confidence. [iv]  

Extensive literature underlines the need to address learners’ mental issues and advocates the provision of support services to students. Since lockdowns, governments, especially in high-income countries, have acted by setting up hotlines, recruiting counsellors or launching projects facilitating students sharing feelings and concerns. [v]

As learning and personal development are strongly intertwined, the Council of Europe has promoted the historical study of crises in schools to help students understand how their peers reacted and felt in the past. Thus, studying history may create a sense of unity and empathy. [vi]

Education responses to the pandemic-resulted predicament in San Marino

The Republic of San Marino executed its plan to cope with the pandemic first and foremost by means of nationwide school closures from 23 February to 10 June 2020, but the closures continued until the end of August because of the usual summer academic break. [vii] In view of the unfolding pandemic, a mixed approach between in-person instruction and remote learning was adopted. Then, there were only partial school closures during the academic year 2020/2021. To sum up, from March 2020 to August 2021, 4,170 learners were affected by school closures, and most of them belonged to lower- and upper-secondary education levels.

As a result of school closures, authorities opted for a distance learning strategy employing online learning platforms for all education levels. Remote learning required the government to provide teachers with instructions on remote teaching, pedagogy workshops, ICT tools and free connectivity while enabling them to teach from school premises. The coverage of online learning platforms was crucial to safeguard the right to education and educational continuity for all learners. Hence, the distance learning strategy embraced policies that did pay attention to students with disabilities. The latter could attend courses on school premises and were supported with tailored materials. For instance, sign language was included in online learning programmes. Schools committed to offering vulnerable households internet subscriptions and devices at subsidised or zero costs to foster students’ access to connectivity.

A monitoring process was facilitated by observing students’ participation in online classes, their scheduled delivery of assignments, and their participation in written and oral tests. It is confirmed that more than 75 % of students attended distance learning during school closures. More importantly, the collaboration and mutual support between schools and families was enhanced through follow-up practices such as phone calls, instant messaging, emailing, videoconferencing and running household surveys on remote learning strategies.

As regards high-stake examinations for the secondary level, they were not cancelled or postponed, but they took place only via online-based oral tests, and they assessed reduced curriculum content.

As the academic year 2019/2020 was profoundly impacted by the coronavirus disease, the school calendar for the subsequent academic year 2020/2021 was adjusted with the start date on 1 September 2020, two weeks ahead of the previous schedule. The government preferred not to extend the duration of classes or the content of curricula. Learning assessments were organised at the classroom level to address learning losses, and authorities decided to launch remedial programmes in primary- and secondary-level schools as of September 2020.

After school reopening, students’ participation was monitored, and it showed that 100 % of students had attended school since September 2020, except for upper-secondary level schools where attendance share was more than 75% but not 100%. The return to in-person instruction was combined with health and hygiene precautionary measures. In the first place, hand-washing practice, using masks, temperature checks, equipment disinfection and the tracking of COVID-19-infected or exposed people were furthered and supervised by school committees. Moreover, adjustments to school and classroom physical arrangements, reducing or suspending extra-curricular activities, and combining remote and in-person learning were the most widely enforced measures. Teaching in schools’ outdoor places was encouraged in pre-primary and primary schools, whereas the progressive return of students divided into age-based cohorts concerned only pre-primary schools. Finally, classroom attendance scheduled in shifts was promoted exclusively in lower- and upper-secondary schools.

Since the pandemic had far-reaching consequences on education, the Republic of San Marino could rely on additional funds to recruit non-teaching safety personnel in all schools and teachers in pre-primary and primary schools in the academic year 2020/2021. However, only reallocations within the ordinary or even reduced education budget allowed the government to increase the education staff compensation, student loans and scholarships.

In addition to the policies implemented for school reopening, the government determined coronavirus national prevalence rates as the criterion for closing schools again. [viii]

The well-being of San Marino students: concerns and efforts

In San Marino’s statement, delivered during the 2022 Transforming Education Summit, the then-heads of State, the Captains Regent of the Republic of San Marino, Mr Oscar Mina II and Mr Paolo Rondelli I, recognised the two main functions of education: learning and personal development. In this respect, they declared the state’s willingness to continue abiding by the principles of equality and inclusiveness. Concerning COVID-19, they emphasise the pandemic consequences on students’ mental health and the educational system’s commitment to standing up to those. [ix]

Accordingly, San Marino authorities have been putting great effort into supporting students’ psychological well-being so far. During nationwide school closures, online counselling and teacher assistants lent learners a hand in facing pandemic hard times. In 2021, counselling points were arranged in secondary schools and the Centro di formazione professionale (vocational training centre).

The provision of assistance soon revealed the worrisome framework compounded by the pandemic. During the academic years 2020/2021 and 2021/2022, more than 130 students turned to the counselling services. Issues such as fear, anxiety, problematic anger management, eating and mood disorders, panic attacks, bullying and self-harm were detected. In some cases, they led to truancy and dropout. [x] As well, manifold addictions rose during the pandemic and after. Among them, social media, drug, and video game addictions have been widespread.The reason why COVID-19 has aggravated addictions lies in the fact that vulnerabilities consolidated while learners were suffering isolation. Consequently, youth specifically deemed social media, drugs or video games as an escape hatch from the gloomy reality. [xi]

Along with counselling services in secondary schools, authorities approved several projects for caring for children in pre-primary and primary schools. Both in 2021 and 2022, artists, teachers and doctors engaged together in school projects. The Giornata degli abbracci (Hugs Day) was outstanding among the initiatives. Considering that the pandemic had altered children’s emotional balance, the Giornata degli abbracci, which took place on 9 June 2022, aimed at restoring mutual trust, solidarity and good mood. [xii]  

In December 2022, the government went one step further. After that, citizens called for the direct democracy mechanism Istanza d’ Arengo, a new professional figure, was established. Doctor Rosita Guidi has been appointed as a school psychologist. The school psychologist services are aimed at students of every level, from pre-primary to secondary schools and the vocational training centre. Dr Rosita Guidi can handle counselling requests from students, parents/caregivers, teachers and school committees. If the request concerns a minor, parents’ consent is compulsory.

The school psychologist comes to the aid of learners, teachers and families to promote the well-being of children and youth. When necessary, the undertaking of therapy paths may be suggested. [[xiii]] Although the school psychologist can easily be contacted (directly and via email), schools endorse additional methods due to privacy considerations. For instance, lower-secondary school students can request by inserting a note filled with personal and contact information in a sealed box.

The psychological support service has been warmly welcomed, given that, from December 2022 to April 2023, 60 requests were sent. [xiv]   

With regard to students’ voice expression, San Marino has embarked on a renovation process planning to upgrade school curricula with interdisciplinarity, digital and citizenship competencies. The latter is meant to enhance the culture of peace, the education for sustainable development, human rights and gender education. Through this enrichment, students are on the right path to taking responsibility, raising their self-confidence and becoming active citizens in the democratic framework. [xv]

Conclusion

Two years after the pandemic outbreak, during the 2022 Transforming Education Summit, 57 % of governments stated the need to support the psycho-social well-being of students and teachers. Along the same line, international organisations and experts have incited states to invest steadily significant and adequate resources in supporting learners’ mental health. [xvi] Schools play a crucial role in this sensitive domain, and their role is all the more important if families do not notice psychological distress or underestimate it. San Marino has endeavoured to make the national educational system resilient to the pandemic, and its achievements have been relevant. Specifically, new counselling services have contributed to the country’s journey towards transformed education. It would be worthwhile to fund these services to a greater extent. Also, psychology training for all education staff has been proposed. [xvii] For all these reasons, even if San Marino’s educational transformation process is relatively recent, it is promising.

References:

[i] Soroptimist International (2021, March). Solidarity of NGOs facing the pandemic: educationhttps://www.soroptimistinternational.org/solidarity-of-ngos-facing-the-pandemic-education/ ; UNESCO, UNICEF, The World Bank (2020, October). What have we learnt? Overview of findings from a survey of ministries of education on national responses to COVID-19 https://data.unicef.org/resources/national-education-responses-to-covid19/#:~:text=Compiling%20data%20from%20surveys%20on,by%20teachers%20and%20were%20more; UNESCO, UNICEF, The World Bank and OECD (2021, June). What’s next? Lessons on Education Recovery: Findings from a Survey of Ministries of Education amid the COVID-19 Pandemic https://covid19.uis.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2021/07/National-Education-Responses-to-COVID-19-Report2_v3.pdf

[ii] Giannini, S. (2020, April). Prioritise health and well-being now and when schools reopen. UNESCO https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/prioritize-health-and-well-being-now-and-when-schools-reopen; World Health Organization (2022, June). The impact of COVID-19 on mental health cannot be made light of https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-mental-health-cannot-be-made-light-of

[iii] International Labour Organization, AIESEC, European Union, European Youth Forum, UN Major Group for Children and Youth, UN OHCHR (2020, August). Youth & COVID-19: Impacts on jobs, education, rights and mental well-being https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_753026.pdf 

[iv] UNESCO, Council of Europe (2021, November). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on student voice, Findings and recommendations https://rm.coe.int/finalpublication-theimpact-of-covid19-on-student-voice/1680a42e52

[v] UNESCO (2021, March). One year into COVID: Prioritising education recovery to avoid a generational catastrophe, Report of UNESCO Online Conference https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000376984 ; UNESCO, Council of Europe (2021, November). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on student voice, Findings and recommendations https://rm.coe.int/finalpublication-theimpact-of-covid19-on-student-voice/1680a42e52; UNESCO, UNICEF, The World Bank and OECD (2021, June). What’s next? Lessons on Education Recovery: Findings from a Survey of Ministries of Education amid the COVID-19 Pandemic https://covid19.uis.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2021/07/National-Education-Responses-to-COVID-19-Report2_v3.pdf 

[[vi]] Council of Europe (2020, October). Making the right to education a reality in times of COVID-19, A Roadmap for Action on the Council of Europe education response to COVID-19 https://rm.coe.int/making-the-right-to-education-a-reality-in-times-of-covid-19-a-roadmap/16809fee7b

[vii] Pre-primary school closures lasted until 7 June 2020, and the academic year 2019/2020 was extended just for them. School closures-related data can be visualised in interactive maps in the UNESCO Web Archive at the following address: https://webarchive.unesco.org/web/20220625033513/https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse#durationschoolclosures

[viii] The information given in this section is contained in San Marino’s responses to the first and third rounds of the four-round Surveyon national Education Responses to COVID-19 School Closures. The first and third rounds of the survey were conducted respectively from May to June 2020 and from February to April 2021. The reader may find more detailed information about the four-round Surveyon national Education Responses to COVID-19 School Closures at the following address: https://tcg.uis.unesco.org/survey-on-national-education-responses-to-covid-19-school-closures/

[ix] San Marino (2022, September). National Declaration of Commitment at the 2022 Transforming Education Summit https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/2022/09/san_marino-commitment-statement-french-english-v.pdf . More about governments’ declarations of commitment at the 2022 Transforming Education Summit can be read at the following address: https://www.un.org/en/transforming-education-summit/member-states-statements

[x] Salvatori, L. (2022, April). Disagio giovanile: con la pandemia, quasi quadruplicati i nuovi casi. San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/politica-c2/disagio-giovanile-con-la-pandemia-quasi-quadruplicati-i-nuovi-casi-a222522

[xi] Camparsi, M. L. (2023, February). Disagio giovanile e dipendenze preadolescenziali: una giornata di formazione a San Marino. San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/attualita-c4/disagio-giovanile-e-dipendenze-preadolescenziali-una-giornata-di-formazione-a-san-marino-a236227

[xii] Giornata degli Abbracci: importante momento di condivisione per la fine della scuola. (2022, June). San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/attualita-c4/giornata-degli-abbracci-importante-momento-di-condivisione-per-la-fine-della-scuola-a224659

[xiii] More details concerning the school psychologist services are available in the national education portal called Portale dell’ Educazione della Repubblica di San Marino at the following address: http://www.media.educazione.sm/on-line/home-portale-scuole-medie/la-scuola/spazio-dascolto.html

[xiv] Giuccioli, A. (2023, April). Lo psicologo entra a scuola in aiuto di giovani e famiglie. In tre mesi oltre 60 richieste. San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/attualita-c4/lo-psicologo-entra-a-scuola-in-aiuto-di-giovani-e-famiglie-in-tre-mesi-oltre-60-richieste-a238898

[xv] San Marino (2022, September). National Declaration of Commitment at the 2022 Transforming Education Summit https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/2022/09/san_marino-commitment-statement-french-english-v.pdf

[xvi] Giannini, S. (2020, April). Prioritise health and well-being now and when schools reopen. UNESCO https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/prioritize-health-and-well-being-now-and-when-schools-reopen; World Health Organization (2022, June). The impact of COVID-19 on mental health cannot be made light of https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-mental-health-cannot-be-made-light-of ; United Nations (2023, January). Report on the 2022 Transforming Education Summit https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/report_on_the_2022_transforming_education_summit.pdf  ; World Health Organization (2022, March). Young people leading the way to a brighter post-COVID worldhttps://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/young-people-leading-the-way-to-a-brighter-post-covid-world

[xvii] Camparsi, M. L. (2023, February). Disagio giovanile e dipendenze preadolescenziali: una giornata di formazione a San Marino. San Marino RTV https://www.sanmarinortv.sm/news/attualita-c4/disagio-giovanile-e-dipendenze-preadolescenziali-una-giornata-di-formazione-a-san-marino-a236227

التحديات التعليمية في إيطاليا

“الشجاعة… أيها الجندي الصغير في الجيش الهائل. كتبك هي أسلحتك، صفك هو كتيبتك، ساحة المعركة هي الأرض بأكملها، والنصر هو الحضارة الإنسانية” (من كتاب القلب). هكذا يعالج دي أميسيس، مؤلف كتاب القلب، أحد أهم الأعمال في الأدب الإيطالي في القرن التاسع عشر، موضوع التعليم. 

بعيدًا عن النغمة الوطنية التي كانت شائعة في فترة ما بعد توحيد إيطاليا، يضع دي أميسيس على الورق أحد أبسط المفاهيم، ولكنه أيضًا من أكثر المفاهيم الأساسية التي تدور حول موضوع التعليم: الحضارة الإنسانية. 

الثقافة هي أحد العناصر التأسيسية لهوية الإنسان، ولهذا السبب يُعتبر التعليم حقًا أساسيًا يجب أن يُضمن لكل فرد بشكل عالمي وقطعي. 

هذا المفهوم يزداد أهمية عندما نضعه في سياق المجتمع المعاصر، الذي يضع العمل في قلب نموذج الإنتاج والاستهلاك. تنص المادة الأولى من الدستور الإيطالي على أن إيطاليا هي جمهورية ديمقراطية، قائمة على العمل، ولهذا السبب، ورغم التحفظات، من المثير للاهتمام التفكير في فرضية ماركس عن العمل غير القسري كوسيلة للتحرر. 

العمل المُحرَّر من الاستغلال هو “الحرية الحقيقية”: بغض النظر عن الدلالة السياسية، فإن التفسير الاجتماعي والاقتصادي لهذه الفكرة يبرز أهمية التعليم في العالم المعاصر (ماركس، ك.، 2005). إذا كان التعليم الجيد، من منظور براغماتي، هو المرحلة الأولية للحصول على وظيفة ماهرة، فيمكن القول إنه يشكل أساس استقلال الفرد الاقتصادي وبالتالي حريته الشخصية. 

تاريخ التعليم في إيطاليا 

من هذا المنظور، يصبح من الواضح أكثر مدى أهمية التعليم باعتباره جوهرًا أساسيًا حوله تطورت الحضارة الإنسانية لعدة قرون. 

بدءًا من نظام الكوروس أونوروم في روما القديمة وصولاً إلى الأديرة المسيحية في العصور الوسطى، كان التعليم دائمًا يُعتبر وسيلة للارتقاء. كانت إيطاليا مهد الثقافة النهضوية، وكذلك المكان الذي وُلدت فيه أولى الجامعات والأكاديميات العلمية (بياجيولي، م.، 1989). 

منذ الأيام الأولى بعد توحيد المملكة الإيطالية، كان من بين الأهداف الرئيسية توحيد الشعب الإيطالي تحت لغة واحدة من خلال حملة واسعة النطاق لمحو الأمية. في عام 1877، تم تقديم إصلاح مدرسي شامل بموجب قانون كوبينو، والذي نص على أن السنتين المجانيتين من التعليم الابتدائي، التي سبق إدخالها بموجب قانون كاساتي، أصبحتا إلزاميتين. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، تم إنشاء مدارس عادية لتعليم المعلمين، وزادت رواتب المعلمين بنسبة 10 في المئة، وتم بناء مدارس جديدة. جعل إصلاح كوبينو المدارس علمانية: تم إزالة التعليم الديني من المنهاج المدرسي واستبداله بالتربية المدنية. 

ومع ذلك، كان للقانون ثغرات: كانت تكاليف المدارس الابتدائية تتحملها البلديات، وتكاليف المدارس الثانوية تتحملها المقاطعات. 

هذا أظهر أول وأكبر المشكلات المتعلقة بالنظام التعليمي الإيطالي: الفجوة بين الشمال والجنوب بسبب الاختلاف في الموارد الاقتصادية للمؤسسات (دي سانكتيس، ف. وكابيلتي، 2020). 

بعد بضعة عقود، ظهرت الفجوة الاجتماعية كأحد المشاكل الأخرى ذات الأهمية الأساسية إلى جانب الفجوة الجغرافية. 

تحت الحكم الفاشي، كانت قضية بناء الإجماع أمرًا بالغ الأهمية: فقد كانت الدعاية وقمع المعارضة الأداتين الرئيسيتين اللتين استخدمهما النظام لتأميم الجماهير. وفي هذا السياق، أدرك النظام منذ البداية أهمية التعليم كوسيلة لذلك، وبدأ عملية “فاشستة” المدارس: حيث أعادت إصلاحات جنتيلي هيكلة المسار التعليمي على نموذج الهرمية الاجتماعية الفاشية، موجهة أبناء العمال والفلاحين والطبقة الحاكمة إلى مدارس مختلفة بناءً على الخلفية الاجتماعية. 

ومن هنا، يُستمد النهج الطبقي الذي لا يزال قائماً في بعض الجوانب في النظام المدرسي الإيطالي الحالي (غابرييلي، ج.، ومونتينو، د. (محرران).، 2009). 

التعريف العام وشروط التعليم في إيطاليا 
ينقسم التعليم للطالب الإيطالي إلى ثلاث مراحل مختلفة: المدرسة الابتدائية (5 سنوات)، المدرسة الثانوية الدنيا (3 سنوات)، وأخيرًا المدرسة الثانوية العليا (5 سنوات). 

المرحلتان الأوليان موحدتان، في حين تضم المرحلة الأخيرة أنواعًا مختلفة من المدارس، بما في ذلك ليتشيوم والمعاهد المهنية والمعاهد التقنية. بمجرد اختيار نوع المدرسة، يتعين على الطالب متابعة دورات محددة تتناسب مع مسار تلك المدرسة. 

يختلف اختيار المدرسة في إيطاليا عن الأنظمة الأوروبية الأخرى، حيث لا يعتمد على مكان الإقامة، مما يسمح بمرونة أكبر للطلاب وتقليل الفصل الاجتماعي. يغطي التعليم الإلزامي مدة 10 سنوات تشمل الفئة العمرية من 6 إلى 16 عامًا. 

هذا يعني أن الحصول على شهادة الثانوية العامة ليس إلزاميًا، وهذا يفسر أن نسبة السكان الذين تتراوح أعمارهم بين 25 و64 عامًا ممن حصلوا على تعليم ثانوي على الأقل تبلغ 62.9%، وهي نسبة أقل بكثير من المتوسط الأوروبي (79.0% في دول الاتحاد الأوروبي) وكذلك مقارنة ببعض الدول الكبرى في الاتحاد الأوروبي . 

قضية الجنوب 

تزداد هذه المشكلة تفاقمًا إذا ركزنا على المنطقة الجنوبية من شبه الجزيرة، التي تتمتع، كما سبق ذكره، بتنمية اقتصادية وصناعية أقل. 

ظل النظام التعليمي في منطقة ميزوجورنو بإيطاليا موضع انتقاد وقلق لفترة طويلة. فالمنطقة تواجه عددًا من المشكلات المتعلقة بالتعليم، مثل ارتفاع معدلات التسرب وانخفاض معدلات الالتحاق بالمدارس، مما يؤثر سلبًا على آفاق التنمية الاجتماعية والاقتصادية في المنطقة. ونتيجة لهذه العوامل، فإن السكان في الجنوب أقل تعليماً بشكل عام مقارنة بالشمال والمناطق الوسطى من البلاد، مما يؤثر على فرص التوظيف والتقدم المهني. 

على وجه التحديد، تبلغ نسبة البالغين الحاصلين على شهادة الثانوية العامة في الجنوب 38.5%، بينما حصل 16.2% فقط على درجة تعليمية جامعية. وعلى النقيض، في المناطق الوسطى والشمالية، تصل نسبة الحاصلين على شهادة جامعية إلى 45% وأكثر من خمس السكان. 

الفجوة الاجتماعية والاقتصادية 

كما ذكرنا سابقًا، يعد الوضع الاجتماعي والاقتصادي لعائلة الفرد مشكلة أساسية أخرى مرتبطة بالتسرب من المدرسة. 

أظهرت العديد من الدراسات البحثية أن الشباب الذين ينحدرون من أسر ذات دخل منخفض ومستوى تعليمي منخفض هم أكثر عرضة للتسرب من المدرسة مقارنة بأقرانهم من الأسر الأكثر ثراءً. الفقر وعدم الاستقرار الاقتصادي والصعوبات المالية يمكن أن تمنع الشباب من الوصول إلى الفرص التعليمية، مما يجعل التسرب من المدرسة خيارًا أكثر احتمالاً. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، قد يجد الآباء ذوو المستويات التعليمية المنخفضة صعوبة في دعم أطفالهم في التعليم بسبب القيود المالية أو نقص المهارات اللازمة. 

يبدو أن الحالة غير المؤاتية للبيئة العائلية تؤثر بشكل أكبر على معدلات التسرب المبكر من المدرسة بين الشباب الذين يعيشون في المناطق الجنوبية. في الواقع، تتشابه معدلات التسرب من المدرسة بين الشباب الذين ينحدرون من آباء ذوي تعليم متوسط وعالٍ في كل من الشمال والجنوب، لكن هناك فروقًا كبيرة في حالة الآباء الذين لديهم شهادة مدرسية متوسطة كحد أقصى (25.5% في الجنوب مقابل 18.9% في الشمال) (ISTAT، 2021). 

معالجة المشكلة 

من المهم التأكيد على أن الحالة الاجتماعية والاقتصادية للعائلة ليست قدراً محتوماً، بل هي عامل يمكن ويجب معالجته من خلال السياسات العامة والاستثمار في التعليم. 

في ضوء ذلك، تحتاج إيطاليا إلى معالجة العديد من القضايا المتعلقة بالنظام التعليمي لمواجهة عدم المساواة في الوصول إلى التعليم. يجب تقليل التفاوتات وضمان الوصول العادل إلى التعليم لجميع الطلاب، بما في ذلك من خلال الدعم الاقتصادي وبرامج الإدماج الاجتماعي. 

من الضروري الاستثمار في المدارس وتدريب المعلمين وتنفيذ برامج التوجيه والدعم للطلاب. 

يجب تحسين فعالية السياسات التعليمية من خلال تبني استراتيجيات مبتكرة تعتمد على الأدلة لتحسين جودة التدريس والتعلم. يمكن أن يساعد التدريب المستمر للمعلمين واستخدام التكنولوجيا الحديثة في تحسين جودة التعليم وزيادة اهتمام الطلاب وتحفيزهم. 

في الختام 

يتعين على إيطاليا مواجهة التحديات التعليمية باستراتيجية طويلة الأجل تستند إلى الاستثمار في البنية التحتية، وتدريب المعلمين، ودعم الطلاب. فقط من خلال التزام مشترك بين المؤسسات والمجتمع المدني والأفراد، سيكون من الممكن التغلب على التحديات الحالية وضمان مستقبل تعليمي أفضل للسكان الإيطاليين. 

بقلم ماتيلدا ريبيتي  

ترجمة رويفة الريامية  

المراجع

Marx, K. (2005). Grundrisse: Foundations of the critique of political economy. Penguin UK.

Biagioli, M. (1989). The social status of Italian mathematicians, 1450–1600. History of science, 27(1), 41-95.

De Sanctis, F., & Cappelletti, V. LA NASCITA DELLA SCUOLA ITALIANA E LA SUA EVOLUZIONE NEI PRIMI TRENT’ANNI DEL’900.

Gabrielli, G., & Montino, D. (Eds.). (2009). The fascist school: institutions, watchwords and places of the imagination. Verona: Ombre corte.

Obbligo scolastico. (n.d.). Ministero Dell’istruzione. https://www.miur.gov.it/obbligo-scolastico

Livelli di istruzione e partecipazione alla formazione. (n.d.). Livelli Di Istruzione E Partecipazione Alla Formazione. https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/262190

Poor quality education in South Africa

Written by Natacha Daniel

“South Africa has one of the most unequal school systems in the world. Children in the top 200 schools achieve more distinctions in mathematics than children in the next 6,600 schools combined. The playing field must be levelled,” said Sheila Mohamed, Executive Director of Amnesty International South Africa.

South Africa, a diverse and promising country, is at a crossroads in its educational environment. Despite progress towards educational equality and accessibility, a dark cloud looms over the nation’s schools: a problem of inadequate educational quality. In this article, we will look at three crucial aspects of the South African education system that contribute to poor teaching and learning: poor time management, insufficient attention to text, and shockingly low levels of teacher subject knowledge. This article uncovers a harsh reality: South African teachers and schools lag well behind their notably poorer regional neigbours. 

Education in South Africa

According to The Economist’s 2017 League Table of Education Systems, South Africa ranks 75th out of 76 countries. According to the most recent figures, 27% of pupils who have completed six years of schooling are unable to read.

Only 37% of children who enter school pass their matriculation test, and only 4% go on to complete postsecondary education and receive a degree (The Economist, 2017). According to the Department of Higher Education and Training, 2.8 million residents between the ages of 18 and

24 are unemployed, not enrolled in an educational institution, and are not getting training (Gater & Isaacs, 2012). 

South Africa, according to the Centre for Education Policy Development (2017), has a high-cost, low-performance education system that fails to contrast favourably with education systems in other developing nations. As a considerable proportion of students reside in rural regions with inadequate conditions, both students and the government incur significant financial burdens (ExpatCapeTown.com, 2016). Local governments are seeking to balance the scales. According to UNICEF (2017), South Africa spends a greater proportion of its GDP1 on education than any other African country. Nonetheless, no meaningful improvement in the country’s education difficulties can be seen. According to Govender (2017), 18 South African schools had 0% success rates in the 2016 national senior certificate examinations.

The HIV AIDS Impact on Education

Although HIV Aids has had a world known impact in many countries, great emphasis is placed here in South Africa. Notably South Africa’s education system has had first-hand experience of the detrimental effects of HIV, through the reduction of able, qualified teachers and its continued disruption on the education of many young pupil’s lives. It goes without saying that without continued support and assistance from actors South Africa will see a further delay in its social and economic development. Key issues to be identified is as follows:  

The HIV/AIDS epidemic specifically in South Africa continues to harm educational development; and there is a decline in the supply of educational services due to teacher fatalities and absenteeism. 

Significant medical along with additional costs are being imposed on the educational system for medical care and death benefits for infected teachers, in addition to recruiting and training replacements for teachers lost to AIDS, according to studies in many countries, including Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The number of school-aged children is decreasing because of HIV Aids. Children who are born with the virus seldom survive long enough to attend school. Orphaned children are frequently neglected and are less likely to attend school than non-orphaned youngsters (cited in Constitution of South Africa, no date). 

The consequences of HIV/AIDS have an adverse effect on the quality of education.  Infected teachers are frequently absent or too unwell to deliver adequate teaching. Substitute educators could fail to possess the necessary expertise or credentials to replace certified teachers. Hence why it is unwise for the government to continue treating HIV/AIDS as a non-serious issue and divert its funding in the fight against the HIV/AIDS epidemic as a result the quality of education is declining notoriously especially towards government schools (Statistics South Africa, no date). 

According to the Medical Research Council, there was an immediate increase of HIV Aids between 1993 and 2000. One potential explanation is that people were distracted by the political turmoil.  HIV Aids was spreading as the South African people and the world’s media concentrated on the country’s political and socio-economic upheavals. Although the outcomes of these political reforms were favourable, the pandemic did not receive the attention it required. It is feasible that a quick response will limit the impact of the outbreak. According to the president of the Medical Research Council, AIDS killed around 336,000 South Africans between the mid2000s and the mid-2006s (Avert, no date). 

Apartheid’s Impact on Education in South Africa

During the apartheid, spanning from 1948 to 1994, and arguably persisting in nuanced forms today, the South African government enforced a discriminatory system that continues to cast a long shadow over the country’s education system. The impact of apartheid on education, particularly for black pupils, has been profound and enduring. Scholars contend that while overt segregation policies may have formally ended, the remnants of this system persist in more subtle, systemic inequalities. This lingering influence raises questions about the true extent of transformation in South Africa’s educational landscape. This section of the study discusses the major characteristics of apartheid’s influence on South African education.

Education Under Apartheid

The educational landscape in South Africa was marred by racial segregation during the apartheid era. The Bantu Education Act of 1953 entrenched a system of stark inequality for Black South Africans. In contrast to their White peers, Black students were subjected to an inferior education, characterised by meagre resources and underqualified instructors.

Apartheid systematically limited access to quality education for non-White South Africans. Black students oftentimes were taught in their native languages, and the curriculum aimed at channelling them into low-wage occupations, thereby perpetuating socioeconomic disparities.

These disparities created a stark contrast between White and Black schools. While White schools enjoyed increased government spending, improved infrastructure, and well-qualified teachers, whilst on the other hand Black schools suffered from overpopulation, insufficient resources, and deteriorating infrastructure. This inequality prompted significant resistance, with students, teachers, and community leaders staging protests, notably during the 1976 Soweto Uprising.

The enduring effects of apartheid on education are still evident today, as educational disparities persist. The government is actively addressing these historical injustices by striving to provide more equitable educational opportunities for all South Africans. Apartheid’s lingering effects may still be seen in modern South Africa, presenting a complicated legacy in the field of education. Permeating educational disparities exist, posing a problem that the government is working to address to rectify past injustices and provide more egalitarian opportunities for all.

The dedication to building a more equitable education system demonstrates a determined attempt to address apartheid’s lingering impacts, recognising the necessity for comprehensive and long-term approaches that transcend historical inequalities. As South Africa continues its path towards educational equity, the determination to remove gaps remains a critical component of the country’s commitment to a more inclusive and just future. 

Policy recommendations

Among the intricate tapestry of difficulties plaguing South Africa’s education system, it is imperative to recognise that an exhaustive and nuanced strategy is required for effective reform. This strategic approach demands a thorough analysis of certain aspects, such as skill development, to identify specific areas of intervention. The next policy suggestions, for example, will examine the national skills development strategy controlled by SETA (sector education and training authority). These proposals aim to effect significant improvements by taking a focused position on recognised challenges, building an inclusive and efficient educational landscape that overcomes past imbalances in South Africa’s learning institutions.

Enhancing Skills Development Strategy for Improved Education:

In the pursuit of elevating the national skills development strategy, particularly the industrial training program currently under the oversight of SETA (Sector Education and Training Authority), the aim is to optimise its efficacy. The primary goal is to foster a heightened level of competitiveness within the business sector and enhance the overall efficiency of the state. Regrettably, the current performance of SETAs falls short of the government’s articulated mission, prompting imminent reforms in the coming year or two. The recommended reforms are poised to rejuvenate and align the skills development strategy with the nation’s objectives for a more robust and competitive educational landscape.

Quality Improvement and Development Strategy in South Africa:

South Africa’s pursuit of an impartial and high-quality education system demands an aggressive strategy centred on continuous improvement and development (Department of Basic Education, 2021). Multiple groups and organisations contribute to this effort, displaying a deliberate effort to minimise educational challenges. The Department of Basic Education’s Curriculum Evaluation Policy Statements (CAPS) provide a comprehensive framework for curriculum creation and evaluation.

In addition, efforts like those made by the South African Institute of Distance Education (SAIDE) actively contribute to improving the quality of education (SAIDE, 2021). SAIDE’s emphasis on new distant education approaches corresponds with the larger objective of improving educational accessibility and inclusion. Adherence to international standards is a vital component of this strategy. The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) aligns educational degrees with worldwide benchmarks, increasing global competitiveness and the legitimacy of South Africa’s education system (SAQA, 2021).

In a ground-breaking move, the government is set to allocate a substantial R12.5 billion investment over the next five years to spearhead a transformative education program aimed at redressing the enduring impact of apartheid on the educational landscape.

The initiative involves the identification of five thousand underperforming schools situated in remote areas, serving as a direct response to the legacy of apartheid. Substantial resources, including libraries, laboratories, and teaching materials, will be allocated to these schools. Additionally, educators will benefit from targeted support through education development programs and dedicated development teams, as outlined by Hoogeveen and OzIer (2004).

The pedagogical approach within these schools will prioritise the acquisition of vital content and academic skills, with a keen focus on imparting crucial literacy and numeracy skills to learners. Importantly, the progress of both learners and their respective schools will undergo regular monitoring and assessment, reflecting a commitment to ensuring sustained improvement and accountability in tackling the prevailing challenges in South Africa’s education system.

In a significant development, government funding for the Higher Education (HE) system in South Africa has witnessed a remarkable doubling since 1996. The restructuring of these institutions is strategically aligned to enhance the country’s capacity to educate and train a workforce characterised by both skills’ excellence and global competitiveness, meeting internationally accepted standards of quality. The paramount focus is on expanding access to the education system.

The South African Qualifications Authority is mandated with the mission “to ensure the development and implementation of a national qualifications framework.” This framework plays a pivotal role in fostering the comprehensive development of each learner and contributing to the social and economic advancement of the nation. The framework operates as a set of principles and guidelines facilitating the registration of learner achievements, promoting national recognition of acquired skills and knowledge, and encouraging a seamless, lifelong learning system.

Outlined in the South African Qualifications Authority Act (No. 58 of 1995), the objectives of the National Qualifications Framework encompass the creation of an integrated national framework for learning achievements, facilitating access to and mobility within education, training, and career paths, enhancing the overall quality of education and training, accelerating redress for past unfair discrimination, and contributing to the holistic personal development of each learner and the broader socio-economic development of the nation.

To reach these objectives, the South African Qualifications Authority commits to establishing a national learners’ records database, overseeing the quality assurance process, and developing a regulatory framework for the standard-setting process. Aligned with the strategic plan for Higher Education, there is an envisioned increase in enrolment from 15% to 20% of school leavers within 15 years. Notably, the plan outlines a shift in enrolment patterns within five years, with declines in humanities and rises in Business and Commerce, as well as Science, Engineering, and Technology.

Closing remarks 

Ultimately, South Africa’s effort to confront the fundamental educational difficulties formed by its historical context, particularly the persisting effect of apartheid, demonstrates a commitment to transformative reform. The strategic goals and policies addressed here are part of a larger effort to create a more inclusive, equitable, and high-quality education system. South Africa’s commitment to accessible, high-quality education for all remains steadfast as it navigates the complexity of this educational landscape.

While obstacles remain, the coordinated investments and reforms demonstrate a resilience that reflects the country’s commitment to developing an informed, competent, and internationally competitive population. South Africa’s education system is a dynamic environment that represents a continuing conversation between past injustices and the aim of a future in which every learner can prosper regardless of their colour or native language.

As the country develops in its own way, it is critical to constantly analyse and adjust policies, drawing inspiration from successful tactics, promoting cooperation, and ensuring that the educational journey corresponds with the changing demands of South Africa’s varied and dynamic community. The goal of this collaborative initiative is to pave the way for a future in which education serves as a beacon of empowerment, breaking down barriers and unlocking the full potential of every student.

REFERENCES

Cover Image by Trevor Samson / World Bank via Flickr

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التحديات التعليمية في الجزائر: عمل جار

كتبه – موجي دينار

Algeria to ease primary school programme. Photo by Magharebia

تعرف الجزائر بأنها أكبر دولة جغرافيا في أفريقيا، وتقع في شمال أفريقيا. ويمكن تقسيم هذا البلد إلى قسمين منفصلين, أحدهما تحت تأثير البحر الأبيض المتوسط مع جبال الأطلس كما يعرف تل والآخر يتكون في الغالب من الصحراء الواقعة في الجزء الغربي من الشرع. يبلغ مجموع السكان الذين يعيشون في الجزائر حوالي ٤٤ مليون نسمة..

استقلت الجزائر بعد أكثر من ١٣٠ سنة من الاستعمار سنة ١٩٦٢. خلال الاستعمار، تم بناء نظام التعليم ليعكس نظام فرنسا، الذي كان يخدمه في الغالب السكان الفرنسيون ونخبة جزائرية صغيرة نسبيا. عندما انتهت حرب الاستقلال الجزائرية، كان ما يقرب من ٩٠٪ من السكان أميين. ونتيجة لذلك، ذهبت البلاد إلى إنشاء الجزائر جديدة من خلال اتباع التعريب.

في عام ١٩٩٠، كان الإنفاق على التعليم مرتفعًا، حيث بلغ ٢٩.٧٪ من الميزانية الوطنية. ووضع التعليم في صميم إعادة بناء البلد عن طريق إنشاء قوة ماهرة وأشخاص يتقاسمون نفس الوعي الوطني.وعلى الرغم من أن محاولاتهم لإصلاح نظام التعليم بعد حرب العالمية الثانية، فإن التقدم المحرز في تعليم الأطفال لا يزال غير كاف. وبناء على ذلك، شكل التاريخ الاستعماري والجنس والعرق والدين فرص التعليم للأطفال.

أما اليوم فالتعليم بجميع مراحله مجاني في الجزائر بشرط اجتياز الدورة السابقة. يتم تطبيق السياسة الاجتماعية من قبل الدولة في قطاع التعليم، وقد يكون هذا مرتبطًا بالانتقال الديمقراطي، على الرغم من أنه قابل للنقاش حول مدى نجاحه. يشمل النظام المدرسي الجزائري ثلاث دورات هي المرحلة الابتدائية والمتوسطة والثانوية. تسع سنوات من التعليم من سن ٦ إلى ١٤ ، أول دورتين إلزامية ومعدل الحضور مرتفع جدا. والتعليم الثانوي إلزامي أيضا مع وجود أعداد كبيرة من المتسربين.

التحديات الرئيسية في التعليم

درجة البكالوريوس هي الحد الأدنى من متطلبات التدريس، ومع ذلك، هناك اختلافات في برامج إعداد المعلمين وبرامج التدريب أثناء الخدمة. ١٧٪ فقط من معلمي المدارس الابتدائية يحملون هذه الشهادة، وما يقرب من ٧٠٪ من معلمي المدارس المتوسطة لا يملكون هذه الشهادة. علاوة على ذلك، فإن الفعالية الداخلية للنظام التعليمي أقل بكثير مما يتوقعه المجتمع، كما يتضح من ارتفاع معدلات التسرب من المدارس والتكرار بين الطلاب.

وتشكل المرافق التي لا تتم صيانتها بشكل جيد، والافتقار إلى المدرسين وحيز الفصول الدراسية، ولا سيما في المجتمعات المحرومة، أمثلة على عدم كفاية الهياكل الأساسية. ويؤدي الافتقار إلى اللوائح والمرافق التعليمية إلى تقييد التعليم قبل الابتدائي. ويطلب من العديد من الطلاب تكرار الدرجات، وخاصة في المرحلة الثانوية الدنيا، مما يحفزهم على التسرب..

يرجع سبب انخفاض جودة التعليم إلى نظام الدرجات الذي يقيس كيفية أداء المتقدمين للاختبار على النقيض من أقرانهم بدلاً من مقدار المعلومات التي يعرفونها، من خلال التعليمات التي تعطي الأولوية للمحتوى على التعلم, وغياب المشاركة من أصحاب المصلحة المهمين. وتقل نتائج الاختبارات الدولية بنسبة ٢٠٪ عن المتوسط العالمي. وكثير من الأطفال غير الملتحقين بالمدارس هم من الأطفال المعوقين. المراكز المتخصصة شحيحة، ومحاولات دمج الطلاب في الفصول العادية تقصر.

التفاوت الاقتصادي

ما يقرب من ٢٪ من الأولاد في سن المدرسة الابتدائية غير ملتحقين بالمدارس، وهو تقريبا نفس المعدل للفتيات. يزداد التفاوت بين الجنسين في المدارس الثانوية؛ إذ لا يلتحق ١٧٪ من الشباب الذكور و١٤٪ من الشابات بالمدرسة أبدًا. وفي كل من المدارس الابتدائية والثانوية، يمكن تحقيق أكبر قدر من التفاوت بين أفقر وأغنى الأطفال غير الملتحقين بالمدارس. في حين أن حضور أفقر الأطفال في المدارس الابتدائية ينخفض بنسبة ١٪ مقارنة بأغنى الأطفال، إلا أنه ينخفض بنسبة 20% في مستوى التعليم الثانوي مع الأخذ في الاعتبار الظروف الاقتصادية السيئة للأسر. ويبين كيف أن الظروف الاقتصادية تعوق الأطفال عن الوصول إلى حقهم الرئيسي في الحصول على التعليم. على الرغم من السياسات الاجتماعية للدولة، فإن معظم الأطفال في الجزائر غير قادرين على الحصول على مستوى أساسي من التعليم بسبب الظروف الاقتصادية غير الملائمة.

تلعب الخصائص الاجتماعية والاقتصادية التمييزية دورًا كبيرًا في التعليم في دولة الجزائر. الثروة المنزلية، والاختلافات الاجتماعية، والتفاوتات الاقتصادية الإقليمية والمستوى التعليمي للأم هي العوامل السائدة التي تؤثر على عدم التوازن التعليمي في الجزائر. هناك حاجة ماسة لحوافز من قبل الحكومة للأطفال الذين يمكنهم تحمل تكاليف التعليم أو للأطفال الذين يتعين عليهم العمل من أجل إعالة أسرهم. من ناحية أخرى، انخفضت الاختلافات الإقليمية والاجتماعية، وفقا لتحليل التطورات على مدى السنوات العشر الماضية. ونتيجة لذلك، تحسنت المساواة في النظام التعليمي الجزائري. ومع ذلك، هناك حاجة إلى مزيد من الاستثمار لخلق مستويات اقتصادية متجانسة في كل منطقة لحل الفوارق التعليمية بين الأطفال..

الإنفاق على التعليم

عانى اقتصاد الجزائر من ضربة لميزانية الحكومة بسبب الاقتصاد المعتمد على النفط في البلاد. بدأ الصراع في الاقتصاد في عام ٢٠١٤ مع انخفاض أسعار النفط العالمية. أدى الاعتماد على تصدير النفط والغاز، بدلاً من الاستثمار في قطاعات أخرى، إلى وضع الجزائر في وضع ضعيف بسبب انهيار التجارة خلال كوفيد-١٩. وعلاوة على ذلك، ساهمت هذه الحالة في فقر متعدد الأبعاد أثر أيضا على التعليم في بعد كبير. انخفض الإنفاق على التعليم من ٧.٣٪ إلى ٦.١٪ بسبب الوباء. نأمل أن يرتفع الإنفاق على التعليم إلى ٧٪ في عام ٢٠٢٠ وأن يعود إلى مستوياته الطبيعية قبل الوباء.

على الرغم من أن البلاد توفر تسع سنوات من التعليم الإلزامي والمجاني لجميع مستويات التعليم، إلا أن الجزائر لا تزال بحاجة إلى تحسين بعض الأهداف لتوفير تعليم جيد, تحسين ظروف المعيشة وانخفاض البطالة من خلال إعطاء الأولوية لإنفاق الناتج المحلي الإجمالي على التعليم.

معدلات عالية من عدم التسجيل وإسقاط-الخروج

ووفقا لبيانات من اليونيسيف عن حالة التعليم، فإن مستويات الالتحاق الصافية هي كما يلي: في التعليم الابتدائي، يلتحق ٩٨٪ من الفتيان و ٩٧٪ من الفتيات; في المرحلة المتوسطة والثانوية، يلتحق ٥٧٪ من الأولاد و ٦٥٪ من البنات. وتوضح هذه الإحصاءات أن المستويات الأساسية للمشاركة كافية، ولكنها تتطلب مزيدا من النمو. في حين أن الحضور في المدارس الابتدائية هو نفسه تقريبًا لكلا الجنسين، فإنه يتغير بعد المدرسة الإعدادية عندما يكون حضور الأولاد في المدرسة أقل من الفتيات.

هناك ما يقرب من ٨.٥ مليون طفل يتلقون التعليم في مراحل التعليم الثلاث. ووفقا للتقرير، فإن حوالي ١ مليون طفل جزائري تتراوح أعمارهم بين ٥ و ١٤ سنة (أو ١٥٪ من هذه الفئة العمرية) يتأثرون بعوامل مختلفة لعدم التسجيل. معدل الالتحاق بالمدارس الابتدائية مرتفع. ومن ناحية أخرى، في مرحلة التعليم الثانوي، نصفهم ليسوا في المدرسة، والنصف الآخر مسجلون ولكنهم معرضون لخطر الانقطاع عن الدراسة قبل الانتهاء من الدورة.

وفي حين أن المشاركة في التعليم الأساسي تمثل مشكلة كبيرة يتعين حلها، فإن تسرب أطفال المدارس من المدارس يمثل مسألة حاسمة أخرى ينبغي الاهتمام بها. ووفقا للرابطة الجزائرية للدفاع عن حقوق الإنسان، فإن ٤٠٠٠٠٠ طفل ينقطعون عن الدراسة سنويا، بينما يواصل ٢٥٠٠٠ طفل الحصول على التدريب المهني. يحدث التسرب من المدارس في الغالب في الريف بسبب بعد المدارس وارتفاع معدلات الفقر. ومن المهم أن نضيف أن بعض المناطق غير مجهزة بشكل جيد بالمياه والتدفئة والكهرباء التي تجعل الحصول على التعليم مستحيلا بالنسبة للأطفال. كما أن الفصول الدراسية غير كافية مما يؤدي إلى الازدحام المفرط في الفصول الدراسية. هذه هي المثبطات الرئيسية للأطفال من الحصول على التعليم و ٤.٧٪منهم يتسربون من المدرسة نتيجة لذلك.

حاجز اللغة

بعد استقلالها عن فرنسا، تابعت البلد استخدام اللغة الفرنسية في المؤسسات وإدارة الأعمال، على الرغم من التطبيق الواسع لسياسة التعريب. اليوم اللغة الرسمية للجزائر هي العربية والأمازيغية، كما تم الاعتراف بالبربرية كلغة وطنية في عام ٢٠٠٢. أعلن الرئيس تبون في يونيو ٢٠٢٢ أن الحكومة اتخذت خطوة نحو الانتقال اللغوي إلى اللغة الإنجليزية في المدارس الابتدائية أيضًا. ويشير إلى عالمية اللغة الإنجليزية للتعلم من قبل الأطفال لمصلحتهم، بينما انتقد آخرون هذا الانتقال باعتباره أجندة سياسية تتعلق بتاريخ البلد.

في السنوات الأولى للجمهورية، وخاصة في ظل حكم هواري بومدين، هيمنت سياسات التعريب على تنفيذ سياسات التعليم. تم تطبيق القانون للتعميم باستخدام اللغة العربية في عام ١٩٩١. فشل تنفيذ التعريب في قطاع التعليم والأكاديميات والعمال في التحول إلى اللغة العربية بنجاح. أيضًا، تضررت مجموعة الجزائر المتنوعة عرقيًا بسبب هذا الانتقال..

واليوم، تجد الجزائر نفسها مرة أخرى في تدخل في الانتقال اللغوي على الرغم من التحديات الأخرى في قطاع التعليم التي تنتظر الحل. مع قرار استبدال اللغة الفرنسية باللغة الإنجليزية، تم إجراء تغيير جذري وسيؤثر هذا الوضع على أكثر من ٢٠٠٠٠ مدرسة في جميع أنحاء البلاد في عام ٢٠٢٣. بموجب المنهج الدراسي في عام ٢٠٢٢، يتم تدريس اللغة الإنجليزية في المدرسة الثانوية، بينما يبدأ الأطفال في سن التاسعة باللغة الفرنسية. ويترك الأطفال الجزائريون غير قادرين على الاستمرار أكاديميا بلغة واحدة بسبب عدم وضوح الأحكام المتعلقة بالانتقال إلى اللغة الإنجليزية في المدارس. وهذا سيعيق أيضا القوى العاملة في المستقبل لتشكيل لغة واحدة للقيام بالعمل.

بدأ التعليم العالي في تقديم اللغة الإنجليزية في العديد من الدرجات ، في حين أن بعضهم لا يزال يدرس باللغة الفرنسية. السؤال الرئيسي هو: هل هناك ما يكفي من الأكاديميين والمعلمين المؤهلين للقيام بما يلي
متابعة سياسة الانتقال اللغوي؟

Bejaia University. Photo by Vermondo.

انخفاض عدد الموظفين المؤهلين في التعليم العالي

كان الطلاب الذين التحقوا بالتعليم العالي يتألفون من ١.٥ مليون في عام ٢٠٢٠. والواقع أن معدل الالتحاق الإجمالي في التعليم العالي للمرأة أكبر من معدل التحاق الذكور. ٤١٪ من الإناث و١٩٪ من الذكور التحقوا بالتعليم العالي، وفقًا لبيانات الصادرة عن اليونسكو في عام ٢٠١٩. يشير هذا الاتجاه إلى أن الذكور أكثر عرضة للانقطاع عن الدراسة من الإناث في الجزائر. يلعب الفقر دورًا كبيرًا في عدم المساواة بين الجنسين في التعليم، فمن المحتمل أن يكون الأطفال الذكور من عمالة الأطفال لدعم أسرهم وأنفسهم. أيضًا، يميل الذكور إلى تكرار الفصول الدراسية أكثر من الإناث، وخطر فشلهم في الفصول الدراسية لإكمال تعليمهم أعلى.

التحسين النوعي للتدريس في مؤسسات التعليم العالي أمر لا بد منه. ٢٨٪ فقط من أعضاء هيئة التدريس في الجامعات يحملون شهادات الدكتوراه. ويجري التفاوض بشأن البرامج التي تمولها الحكومة لطلاب الدكتوراه للدراسة في الخارج. يعمل المجلس الثقافي البريطاني والوزارة معا على برنامج واسع النطاق للدراسات العليا للأشخاص الذين يرغبون في الدراسة في الخارج. ونأمل أن يساعد ذلك على تيسير إصلاح نظام التعليم العالي.

أطفال صحويين في مخيمات اللاجئين

يعيش أكثر من ١٧٣٠٠٠ لاجئ صحوي حاليا في خمسة مخيمات تقع في محافظة تندوف، الجزائر. نزح هؤلاء الأشخاص بعد أكثر من ٤٥ عامًا من فرارهم من الصراع. ويعاني الأطفال الذين يعيشون في المخيمات من الأمن الغذائي، والظروف الصحية، وعدم كفاية الحماية، والأهم من ذلك نقص التعليم.

يحصل ما يقرب من ٩٨٪ من الأطفال على التعليم الابتدائي، وتبلغ نسبة الأمية ٤٪. ومع ذلك، لا يتم توفير التعليم الثانوي والتعليم في المدارس الثانوية في المخيمات. يتكون كل مخيم من ست مدارس ابتدائية ومدرستين متوسطتين مع حوافز منخفضة للغاية وموارد منخفضة. ويستطيع الطلاب الصحراويين الالتحاق بالمدارس الثانوية والجامعات مجانا، ولكن معظمهم غير قادرين على تغطية نفقات السفر والمعيشة للانتقال إلى مدن أخرى. عدد من الطلاب الذكور الذين ينتقلون للدراسة، في حين أنه من غير الممكن للطالبات القيام بذلك..

أطلقت مفوضية الأمم المتحدة لشؤون اللاجئين واليونيسيف وبرنامج الأغذية العالمي استراتيجية التعليم الخمسية للاجئين الصحراويين في الجزائر للفترة ٢٠٢١-٢٠٢٥ في نوفمبر ٢٠٢١ بهدف تحسين الأطفال والمراهقين اللاجئين الصحراويين’ الحصول الشامل على تعليم عالي الجودة. كما يتم إعطاء ٢٤٤ طفلاً يعانون من إعاقات جسدية ومعرفية تعليم ذوي الاحتياجات الخاصة في ١٠ مراكز منتشرة في جميع أنحاء المخيمات. تدعم المفوضية الأطفال اللاجئين من خلال تزويدهم بالكتب واللوازم المدرسية والوسائل التعليمية لتعزيز بيئة تعليمية آمنة.

Forgotten refugee crisis: Sahrawi refugees in Algeria. Photo by AMMILOUIZA LOUIZA AMMI

Cover Image: https://www.wamda.com/2015/07/how-will-technology-change-education-in-algeria

References

Footnotes

[1]Encyclopedia Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/place/Algeria

[2] Durham, B. (2021). Primary Education and the French Army During the Algerian War of Independence. In: Beier, J.M., Tabak, J. (eds) Childhoods in Peace and Conflict. Rethinking Peace and Conflict Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.

[3] Rose, M. (2015). Education in North Africa since independence. In Paper commissioned for the Hammamet Conference. London: British Council.

[4] Durham, B. (2021). Primary Education and the French Army During the Algerian War of Independence. In: Beier, J.M., Tabak, J. (eds) Childhoods in Peace and Conflict. Rethinking Peace and Conflict Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.

[5] https://www.arab-reform.net/publication/social-policy-in-algeria-a-historical-and-ideological-background/

[6] Education Data Center, Algeria: National Education Profile

https://www.epdc.org/sites/default/files/documents/EPDC_NEP_2018_Algeria.pdf

[7] WorldBank

https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?end=2020&locations=DZ&start=1979&view=chart

[8] Education Data Center, Algeria: National Education Profile

https://www.epdc.org/sites/default/files/documents/EPDC_NEP_2018_Algeria.pdf

[9] UNICEF, Country Report: Algeria (2014)

https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/6526/file/Algeria%20Country%20Report%20on%20OOSC%20Summary_EN.pdf%20.pdf

[10] https://www.arab-reform.net/publication/social-policy-in-algeria-a-historical-and-ideological-background/

[11] World Bank

https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GB.ZS?locations=DZ

[12] Tiliouine, H. (2015). Children’s Worlds National Report Algeria. Journal of Algerian Studies, 3, 48-70.

[13]  UNICEF, Country Report: Algeria (2014)

https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/6526/file/Algeria%20Country%20Report%20on%20OOSC%20Summary_EN.pdf%20.pdf

[14] https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20180417-algeria-400000-children-drop-out-of-school-annually/

[15] https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62368931

[16] https://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/algeria-changing-french-language-english-wont-resolve-t

[17] https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62368931

[18] https://www.statista.com/topics/9699/education-in-algeria/#topicOverview

[19] UNESCO, MICS 2019

https://www.education-inequalities.org/indicators/higher_1822/algeria/sexes#dimension1=%7B%22id%22%3A%22sex%22%2C%22filters%22%3A%5B%22Male%22%2C%22Female%22%5D%7D&ageGroup=%22attend_higher_1822%22&year=%222019%22

[20] Rose, M. (2015). Education in North Africa since independence. In Paper commissioned for the Hammamet Conference. London: British Council.

[21] ACAPS Briefing Note: Algeria: Sahrawi refugees in Tindouf (19 January 2022)

[22] ACAPS Briefing Note: Algeria: Sahrawi refugees in Tindouf (19 January 2022)

https://reliefweb.int/report/algeria/acaps-briefing-note-algeria-sahrawi-refugees-tindouf-19-january-2022

[23] UNHCR Algeria Fact Sheet – February 2023

Educational Challenges in Poland: A Deepening Crisis

Written by Aneta Orlowska

The state of education in Poland has reached a critical point, with concerns mounting over the future of the country’s schooling system. Recent research and surveys conducted by various organisations shed light on the challenges faced by Polish schools and the urgent need for action to address these issues.

According to a survey by the Polish Teachers’ Union (ZNP), the situation in schools is rapidly deteriorating, and its impact will be felt by everyone involved. The survey aims to draw attention to the problems plaguing the education system and highlight the need for immediate intervention. While amendments to education laws have been proposed, they do not adequately address the underlying issues.

One of the primary concerns highlighted by the ZNP is the severe shortage of teachers. It is estimated that there will be a shortfall of 25,000 to 30,000 teachers this year alone, but the actual number of deficiencies is expected to reach a staggering 55,000. This shortage has far-reaching consequences, affecting the quality of education and the overall learning experience for students. Classrooms are overcrowded, leaving teachers with limited time and resources to provide individual attention to students. This, in turn, hampers the students’ ability to learn and thrive academically.

The picket organised by the Polish Teachers’ Union on September 1 in front of the Ministry of Education and Science aims to express strong dissatisfaction with the current state of education in Poland. The main focus of the protest is the recently passed amendment to the educational law, which grants parents greater control over the activities of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in schools. This amendment has sparked concerns among teachers and educators regarding its potential impact on the autonomy and quality of education.

Furthermore, the picket also serves as a platform to address broader issues that affect the education system in Poland, such as inadequate funding, overcrowded classrooms, and the lack of resources for students and teachers. By taking part in this protest, the Polish Teachers’ Union hopes to raise awareness and initiate a dialogue with the government and other stakeholders to bring about positive changes in the education sector. Krzysztof Baszczyński, Vice President of the Polish Teachers’ Union, emphasises the need for dialogue and collaboration to improve the situation. The picket seeks to engage NGOs and other stakeholders to join forces in finding solutions that prioritise remuneration, the core curriculum, and working conditions. The participation of NGOs in the protest is crucial, as they play a vital role in shaping the learning environment and supporting educational initiatives. The amendment to the educational law, which may hinder the access of NGOs to schools, is a cause for concern as it limits the resources and support available to students

Critics argue that the amendment to the educational law may further hinder the access of NGOs to schools, leading many directors to question the value of their involvement. The fear of potential repercussions from authorities may discourage schools from collaborating with NGOs, further limiting the resources and support available to students.

The concerns raised by the Polish Teachers’ Union are not limited to the amendment to the educational law. They also encompass the broader issues of staffing shortages, working conditions, and the quality of education. The union estimates that the current vacancies represent only a fraction of the actual need for teachers. The situation is exacerbated by the fact that young people are increasingly discouraged from pursuing a career in education due to unattractive salaries and working conditions.

While the government emphasises the increase in educational subsidies, critics argue that these increases are not sufficient to address the ongoing challenges. They also contend that the difference between the government’s claims and the actual situation highlights the urgent need for comprehensive reforms and increased investment in education. This disconnect between words and actions has significant consequences, as it perpetuates educational inequality and hampers social mobility. It is crucial for policymakers to acknowledge the seriousness of the situation and take decisive measures to bridge this gap. By implementing substantial reforms and allocating ample resources to education, we can pave the way for a brighter future and ensure equal opportunities for all learners, regardless of their socio-economic background.

The crisis in Polish schools is not limited to staffing shortages. In fact, the situation goes beyond just a lack of teachers and educators. The survey conducted by SW Research for rp.pl reveals a deep and widespread dissatisfaction among the public with the government’s education policy. It is clear that there are significant concerns regarding the quality of education and the scarcity of resources available to students and schools alike. This survey serves as a stark reminder that the current education system is in dire need of comprehensive and effective reforms. It is crucial for the government and policymakers to take immediate action to address these pressing issues and ensure a better future for the education system in Poland.

In addition to the shortage of teachers and concerns about education policy, other problems plague the Polish education system. These include inadequate access to mental health support, the politicisation of the curriculum, the lack of resources for extracurricular activities, and the pressing need for comprehensive career counselling. Students and recent graduates stress the need for a more balanced and well-rounded education that not only focuses on academic subjects but also includes practical life skills such as financial literacy, critical thinking, and problem-solving. They believe that this kind of education will better equip them to navigate the complexities of the modern world and prepare them for success in their future endeavours.

Refugee students in Poland face additional challenges within the education system. Language barriers, cultural differences, and limited access to support services make it difficult for students to fully integrate and succeed academically. Many refugee students have experienced interrupted education and trauma, which further complicates their educational journey. There is a need for targeted initiatives and resources to address the specific needs of refugee students and ensure their smooth transition into the Polish education system.

The educational challenges in Poland are undeniable, and urgent action is needed to prevent further deterioration. The government, in collaboration with educational stakeholders, must prioritise addressing the shortage of teachers, improving working conditions, and ensuring access to quality education for all students. Only through a concerted effort to address these challenges can Poland’s education system regain its strength and provide a solid foundation for the future generations.

To overcome these challenges, it is crucial for the government to allocate more resources to education and increase funding for teacher salaries and professional development programmes. Additionally, the government should establish mechanisms to attract and retain qualified teachers, such as offering attractive incentives and improving working conditions. Moreover, there is a need for comprehensive educational reforms that prioritise the holistic development of students.

References

Cover image “Presentation for 6th and 7th graders (Poland)” via Flickr

التحديات التعليمية في اليمن: كيف يعرض الصراع التعليم للخطر

أطفال يمنيون يلعبون في أنقاض المباني التي دمرت في غارة جوية، تصوير بيتر بيرو
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/eu_echo/48479825097/in/photostream/

ما الذي يحدث في اليمن منذ عام ٢٠١٥؟

اليمن لها جذور قديمة في مفترق طرق الشرق الأوسط وآسيا وأفريقيا، والجمهورية اليمنية هي دولة جديدة نسبيا. تم إنشاؤه في عام ١٩٩٠ بعد توحيد اليمن الجنوبي الشيوعي مع اليمن الشمالي.

تأثرت موجة الاحتجاجات في اليمن عام ٢٠١١ بالربيع العربي، ويعاني اليمن منذ ذلك الحين من حروب أهلية وعنف جهادي وعشائرية وفقر مدقع.

علاوة على ذلك، فإن المعاناة الناجمة عن الحرب الحالية منذ عام ٢٠١٥ بين تحالف تقوده المملكة العربية السعودية والحوثيين، وهي ميليشيا شيعية تدعمها إيران (البنك الدولي، ٢٠١٩). تم تقديم الدعم اللوجستي والاستخباراتي للتحالف الذي تقوده السعودية من الولايات المتحدة والمملكة المتحدة وفرنسا. ووفقا للأمم المتحدة، ارتكب كلا الجانبين في الحرب جرائم حرب. ومع ذلك، رفض الجانبان هذه المزاعم (البنك الدولي، ٢٠٢٣).

قبل وقت طويل من بدء الأزمة الحالية، كان تسييس التعليم في اليمن قضية. بادئ ذي بدء، لم يكن مطلوبًا ترخيص ولا أي نوع من الإشراف على المدارس الدينية، التي سبقت المدارس العامة ومؤسسات التعليم العالي التي تديرها الحكومة (ناجي، ٢٠٢١). ومع ذلك، أدى الصراع إلى تفاقم انهيار التعليم في البلد الذي كان ضعيفا بالفعل في نظامه التعليمي.

بشكل عام، لدى كل من الشمال والجنوب نظامهم التعليمي المستقل (طاهر وآخرون، ٢٠٢٢). ويعطي كل طرف من الأطراف المشاركة الأولوية للتنمية العسكرية بينما يتجاهل كل جانب من جوانب التقدم، مثل التعليم. لخدمة أهدافهم الأيديولوجية والسياسية الخاصة ، يقوم كل من هذه الأنظمة بإجراء تغييرات كبيرة على التعليم ، ومع ذلك فإن جودة التعليم آخذة في الانخفاض في كلا المكانين. الأطفال غير قادرين على الالتحاق بالمدارس بسبب النزاع والتشرد وانتشار الأمراض ونقص البنية التحتية والتمييز بين الجنسين.


Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/eu_echo/48479676556/in/photostream/ مجموعة من الأطفال، نزحوا بسبب القتال في مدينة الحديدة اليمنية، يشاركون في دروس اللحاق بالركب في مخيم الرباط بالقرب من مدينة عدن اليمنية. تصوير بيتر بيرو

صعوبات التعليم المرتبطة بالنزاعات

وقد أثرت الهجمات على أطفال المدارس والمعلمين والبنية التحتية التعليمية، منذ بدء النزاع، على النظام التعليمي وعلى وصول ملايين الأطفال إلى فرص التعلم. يعاني اليمن من أزمة تعليمية خطيرة، سيكون لها آثار مدمرة طويلة الأمد على الأطفال (التعليم في اليمن، اليونيسف، ٢٠٢٣).

يحتاج حوالي ١١ مليون طفل يمني إلى مساعدات إنسانية، وأكثر من ٢.٤ مليون فتى وفتاة في سن المدرسة لا يذهبون إلى المدرسة (اليونيسف، ٢٠٢٣). العديد من العائلات غير قادرة على جلب أطفالها إلى المدرسة بسبب تكلفة الطعام والنفقات الأخرى المتعلقة بالمدرسة (مكافحة الجوع وضمان عودة الأطفال اليمنيين إلى المدرسة، ٢٠٢٣).

ووفقا لإحصاءات اليونيسف، هناك أكثر من مليوني طفل غير ملتحقين بالمدارس، وهناك ملايين عديدة بحاجة إلى المساعدة للتسجيل، وأكثر من ٢٠٪ من بين جميع المدارس الابتدائية والثانوية مغلقة (اللجنة الدولية للصليب الأحمر،
٢٠٢٢). قتل أو جرح طلاب ومعلمون في طريقهم إلى المدرسة. ولم تعد أسر عديدة ترسل أطفالها إلى المدارس، ولا سيما الفتيات، بسبب خطر النزاع وآثاره المالية. وتخفف الآثار النفسية للعنف من الأداء التعليمي للأطفال لأن العديد من الأطفال لم يعرفوا سوى الحياة في الصراع.

وقد تم تدمير واحد على الأقل من كل أربعة مرافق تعليمية، أو تلفها، أو استخدامها في استخدامات أخرى على مدى السنوات الثماني الماضية. ٥٨٪ من هذه المدارس تضررت بسبب النزاع و ٣٠٪ تستخدم كمراكز للحجر الصحي أو تشغلها الجماعات المسلحة (منظمة إنقاذ الطفولة الدولية، منظمة إنقاذ الطفولة اليمنية، ٢٠٢١).

بموجب القانون الإنساني الدولي، يتعين على أطراف الحرب اتخاذ جميع الاحتياطات اللازمة لحماية المدنيين والبنية التحتية المدنية. ينتج الضرر طويل الأمد عن العنف ضد الطلاب والمعلمين ومؤسسات التعليم العالي. كما أنه يجعل من الصعب استعادة النظام التعليمي بعد النزاع.

مشكلة النزوح

الصراع المستمر يجبر الناس على الانتقال إلى مناطق أخرى من البلاد. وقد انقطع حصول المشردين على التعليم فجأة بسبب تشريدهم. إن ١.٥ مليون طفل مشرد داخليا في سن المدرسة، و ٨٧٠٤٩٥ من الفتيات والفتيان ذوي الإعاقة، وأكثر من ٢ مليون طفل غير ملتحقين بالمدارس هم الأكثر عرضة للخطر (مكتب تنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية, ٢٠٢٣). بين سبتمبر وأكتوبر ٢٠٢٢، قامت المفوضية ومنظمة ديم للتنمية بتجديد الفصول الدراسية في المدارس بتمويل من مشروع التأثير السريع (مكتب تنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية، ٢٠٢٣).

وتقوم المنظمات الدولية والمجتمعات المحلية بمهمة الوصول إلى الأطفال الذين يحتاجون إلى المساعدة الصحية والتعليمية في الأماكن المشردة والتي يصعب الوصول إليها. وشارك في البعثة مكتب تنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية واليونيسيف ومفوضية الأمم المتحدة لشؤون اللاجئين وصندوق الأمم المتحدة للسكان وجهات أخرى.

مجموعة من الأطفال، نزحوا جراء القتال في مدينة الحديدة اليمنية. تصوير بيتر بيرو Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/eu_echo/48479828522

عدم الوصول إلى مرافق الرعاية الصحية ومرافق المياه والصرف الصحي والنظافة الصحية

كما يفتقر الكثير من الناس في اليمن إلى خدمات الرعاية الصحية والتغذية، ويعيش ٥٤٠٠٠٠ طفل في حالة سوء تغذية حاد وخدمات صحية غير كافية. تعد الحاجة إلى المياه والصرف الصحي والنظافة للأطفال أكثر شيوعًا في مناطق النزوح الجديدة والمناطق الريفية. تعتبر المساعدة في توفير المأوى والمياه والصرف الصحي والنظافة الصحية أهم عامل للأطفال لمتابعة تعليمهم. في عام ٢٠٢٣، سيحتاج أكثر من ٨.٦ مليون تلميذ إلى المساعدة وفقًا لمكتب الأمم المتحدة لتنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية مكتب تنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية، العدد ١، ٢٠٢٣).)

نتيجة الحرب هي الأضرار التي لحقت بالبنية التحتية وتعطيل استيراد الوقود مما تسبب في ٦١٪ من اليمنيين عدم الوصول إلى المياه و ٤٢٪ من السكان ليس لديهم ما يكفي من الصرف الصحي (مكتب تنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية، العدد ١، ٢٠٢٣). كما أن القدر الهائل من الوقت الذي يقضيه توصيل المياه يضر بالفرص التعليمية للأطفال. مع عدم وجود خيار سوى الذهاب إلى نقاط المياه مرتين في اليوم وحمل حاويات المياه البلاستيكية على رؤوسهم، اضطر العديد من الأطفال إلى ترك المدرسة (مكتب تنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية، العدد ١, ٢٠٢٣).

تم إطلاق الأحداث لتحسين الوصول إلى المياه الآمنة رسميًا في فبراير ٢٠٢٢ من قبل المنظمة الدولية للهجرة و(مكتب تنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية، العدد ١، ٢٠٢٣). يمكن للعديد من الأطفال العودة إلى المدرسة وإنهاء تعليمهم، وخاصة الفتيات. ويفتح المشروع أيضا المجال أمام قدرة السكان على الانخراط في الزراعة وغيرها من أنشطة كسب الرزق.

نشر الأمراض والتحصين العاجل للأطفال

“وقال نعيم الخالدي ”إن الأزمة المطولة ونقص التمويل لحزب الشعب الجمهوري يهددان انعدام الأمن الغذائي، مما قد يؤدي إلى المجاعة وتفشي الأمراض والأوبئة“, منسق برنامج مؤسسة شباب تمدين (مكتب تنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية، العدد ٢، ٢٠٢٣). على سبيل المثال، عاد شلل الأطفال بشكل مخيف إلى اليمن بعد سنوات من إعلان خلوه من المرض القاتل.

وقد تأثر الصراع بتفشي الأمراض المعدية الكبيرة، بما في ذلك بعض الأمراض التي كان من الممكن منعها بالتطعيم، مثل الكوليرا والدفتيريا وحمى الضنك والحصبة وظهور فيروسات شلل الأطفال المشتقة من اللقاحات. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، جعلت جائحة كوفيد-١٩ الحالة الصحية أسوأ..

تم تقديم مستوى جديد من المضاعفات لملايين أطفال المدارس في اليمن الذين يعانون من جائحة كوفيد-١٩. بالنسبة لملايين الفتيان والفتيات في اليمن، بعد الإبلاغ عن العديد من حالات المرض في مارس ٢٠٢٠ أغلقت المدارس وبقيت مغلقة لمدة ستة أشهر. على الرغم من إعادة فتح المدارس، إلا أن العديد من الأطفال لم يعودوا إلى الفصول الدراسية (منظمة التعليم لا يمكن أن ينتظر في اليمن، ٢٠٢٣).

بعد معاناته من جائحة كوفيد-١٩، يتعامل اليمن مع ارتفاع حالات فيروس شلل الأطفال. أصيب ٢٢٨ طفلًا بالشلل بسبب فيروس شلل الأطفال في عام ٢٠٢١ في اليمن. في اليمن، كان هناك حوالي ٢٢٠٠٠ حالة إصابة بالحصبة في عام ٢٠٢٢، مع ١٦١ إصابة. تم الإبلاغ عن ٩٤١٨ حالة في عام ٢٠٢٣، وتوفي ٧٧ طفلاً (مكتب تنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية،
العدد ١، ٢٠٢٣).

ويشكل انخفاض معدلات التحصين ضد الأمراض التي يمكن الوقاية منها باللقاحات بين الأطفال وضعا خطيرا جدا بالنسبة لهم للالتحاق بالمدارس. لا تستطيع العديد من عائلات الأطفال تحمل تكاليف الاستشفاء (مكتب تنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية
العدد ٣، ٢٠٢٣). في حين كانت هناك العديد من حملات التطعيم ضد شلل الأطفال والحصبة على مدى العامين الماضيين في المناطق الجنوبية, يتعرض الأطفال في المناطق الشمالية للخطر بشكل خاص بسبب الجمود المستمر بشأن جهود التحصين الإضافية هناك (مكتب تنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية،
العدد ٣، ٢٠٢٣).

عدم المساواة بين الجنسين

ولا تزال المؤسسات الثقافية والدينية ذات التوجه الأبوي هي الخصم الرئيسي لتعليم الإناث. تسعى الحكومة والمنظمات الدولية إلى تغيير عقلية الأسر الحالية لمنع بناتها من متابعة التعليم من خلال إطلاق حملات مختلفة في المناطق الريفية, تعزيز المعايير الاجتماعية التي بنوها (بلوت، ٢٠٢٣). ومع ذلك، فإن تسرب التلميذات من المدارس معرض لخطر زواج الأطفال، بينما تقوم الجماعات المسلحة بتجنيد الأولاد.

الجنس الأكثر تأثراً بالتشرد هو الإناث. تمنع العقبات البيروقراطية النساء من السفر دون صحبة أحد أفراد الأسرة المقربين. وقد خلق هذا تأثيرًا كبيرًا على النساء للوصول إلى التعليم ومتابعته (مكتب تنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية
العدد ١، ٢٠٢٣). أدت الزيادة في متطلبات المحرم ومعظم المناطق التي تسيطرعليها إلى تفاقم الفجوة بين الجنسين في التعليم، مما أدى إلى فجوة واسعة بين الجنسين في محو الأمية والتعليم الأساسي.

يلعب الصراع الاقتصادي في الدولة دورًا في عدم المساواة بين الجنسين أيضًا. الحصول على الحد الأدنى من الدخل يؤثر على الأسر اليمنية’ القوة الشرائية. تؤثر الظروف الاقتصادية الضعيفة على ظروف المرأة’ وتعليم الأطفال. وسيكون له تأثير الدومينو وسيزيد من خطر العنف القائم على نوع الجنس وغيره من الانتهاكات بين النساء والفتيات. سيكون للأطفال وصول أقل إلى المدرسة والمزيد من حالات تفكك الأسرة، وعمل الأطفال، وزواج الأطفال، والاتجار بالأطفال (مكتب تنسيق الشؤون الإنسانية، ٢٠٢٢).)

حوافز غير كافية للمعلمين

يتعرض النظام التعليمي في اليمن لخطر الانهيار، مما سيكون له تأثير على كل من الذكور والإناث في سن المدرسة. أدى الصراع الذي استمر لسنوات، وسقوط الاقتصاد، ووباء كوفيد-١٩، إلى تقييد الوصول إلى التعليم. ولا يزال التعلم المنظم يتأثر بعدم كفاية دفع مرتبات المعلمين.

منذ عام ٢٠١٦ ، تلقى غالبية المعلمين في المحافظات (أو ٦١٪ من أعضاء هيئة التدريس) بدلات سيئة. عندما يتقاضى المعلمون رواتبهم، تكون المبالغ قليلة وتدفع ببطء، مما يثبطهم عن العمل ويجبرهم على البحث عن وظائف جانبية لدعم دخلهم (التعليم في اليمن، ٢٠٢٣). أيضًا، يؤدي معظم المعلمين إلى ترك وظائفهم مما يهدد بفقدان ما يقرب من أربعة ملايين طفل لوصولهم إلى التعليم (ناجي، ٢٠٢١). في كل عام، يفر عدد من المعلمين والطلاب من البلاد، وجزء كبير من هؤلاء الأفراد هم الأكثر تأهيلاً.

وهناك مشكلة هامة أخرى هي عدم وجود برامج كافية لتدريب المعلمين، مما يجعل المعلمين المؤهلين يبقون أقل بكثير. الفجوة بين الجنسين بين المعلمين واسعة جدا. المعلمون هم من الذكور بشكل رئيسي بنسبة ٨٠٪، مما يخلق نقصًا في المعلمات.

لقد عانى المعلمون وكذلك الطلاب من هذا النضال المستمر وحتى استغلوه ضد بعضهم البعض. تم تجنيد المعلمين والطلاب للتعاون مع القبائل التي انخرطت في هذا الصراع. فالسلام والتعليم يستعاض عنهما بالصراع والمعتقدات السياسية التي تخدم مصالح الأحزاب والقبائل. ترك الطلاب المدرسة وقرروا التحالف مع القبائل التي ستدفع تكاليف احتياجاتهم الأساسية. ويشمل ذلك المعلمين الذين ذهبوا لسنوات دون تلقي مدفوعات (طاهر وآخرون، ٢٠٢٢).

References

Ballout, A. (2023). Female Education in Yemen. Available at SSRN 4318578.

Battling Hunger and Ensuring Yemeni Children Can Get Back to School. (2023, February 1). World Bank. Retrieved May 26, 2023, from https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2023/02/01/battling-hunger-and-ensuring-yemeni-children-can-get-back-to-school

ECW in Yemen. (n.d.). Education Cannot Wait. Retrieved May 26, 2023, from https://www.educationcannotwait.org/our-investments/where-we-work/yemen

Education in Yemen. (n.d.). UNICEF. Retrieved May 26, 2023, from https://www.unicef.org/yemen/education

8 years of crushing conflict in Yemen. (2023, March 24). UNICEF. Retrieved May 26, 2023, from https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/8-years-crushing-conflict-yemen-leave-more-11-million-children-need-humanitarian

How and why to end the war in Yemen. (2019, May 7). Economist. Retrieved May 26, 2023, from https://www.economist.com/leaders/2017/11/30/how-and-why-to-end-the-war-in-yemen?utm_medium=cpc.adword.pd&utm_source=google&ppccampaignID=18151738051&ppcadID=&utm_campaign=a.22brand_pmax&utm_content=conversion.direct-response.anonymous&gclid=CjwKCAjwge2iBh

ICRC. (2022, October 13). Yemen: Conflict leaves millions of children without proper education. In News and Press Release. https://reliefweb.int/report/yemen/yemen-conflict-leaves-millions-children-without-proper-education-enar

Nagi, A. (2021). Education in Yemen: Turning Pens into Bullets.

OCHA. (2022, April 30). Yemen Humanitarian Response Plan 2022. https://reliefweb.int/report/yemen/yemen-humanitarian-response-plan-2022-april-2022

OCHA. (2023, January). Report: Yemen Humanitarian Update. (Issue 1). https://reliefweb.int/report/yemen/yemen-humanitarian-update-issue-1-january-2023-enar

OCHA. (2023, February). Yemen Humanitarian Update. (Issue 2). https://reliefweb.int/report/yemen/yemen-humanitarian-update-issue-2-february-2023-enar

OCHA. (2023, March). Yemen Humanitarian Update. (Issue 3).

Save the Children International, Save the Children Yemen. (2021, June). Report: Education in Crisis in Yemen.

Taher, A., Khan, Z., Alduais, A., & Muthanna, A. (2022). Intertribal conflict, educational development and education crisis in Yemen: A call for saving education. Review of Education, 10(3)(e3376).

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Featured image: Yemeni children play in the rubble of buildings destroyed in an air raid, Photo by Biro

مستقبل التعليم في ظل الأزمات السياسية في السودان

مستقبل التعليم في ظل الأزمات السياسية في السودان

مصدر الصورة:

https://www.independentarabia.com/node/172496/

تأثرت بعض المدارس والجامعات مباشرة بالقصف بالأسلحة الثقيلة. في ١٨ أبريل ٢٠٢٣، قُتل ثلاثة طلاب نتيجة سقوط قذيفة بالقرب من منزلهم في منطقة شرق النيل. ومن المقرر أن يتقدم عثمان عبد المنعم، ١٧ عاما، لامتحانات الثانوية العامة في العاشر من يونيو المقبل، وفق ما أعلنته وزارة التربية والتعليم في السودان, لكنه وضع كتيباته وكتبه جانبًا وبدأ يتابع باهتمام الحرب التي اندلعت قبل عشرة أيام. بين الجيش السوداني وقوات الدعم السريع في الخرطوم.

أصيب بالقلق والخوف من صوت الأسلحة الثقيلة والرصاص الذي اخترق سقوف وجدران المنازل وأدى إلى مقتل عدد من أقرانه. يصلي عثمان إلى الله لإنهاء الحرب ويقول إن هذا الوضع لا يبشر بأن التقويم الأكاديمي سيستمر كما هو مخطط له.

لا تختلف حالة عثمان عن حالة أكثر من ٥٠٠ ألف طالب وطالبة سيجلسون لامتحانات الشهادة السودانية هذا العام. لقد تخلوا عن دفاتر ملاحظاتهم بعد أن شاهدوا على شاشات التلفزيون ووسائل الإعلام المختلفة الحرائق والجثث ملقاة على الأرض، ويخشون نفس المصير، حسبما قال المتحدث باسم لجنة المعلمين’, سامي الباقر ل «Middle East»

وأضاف، أن “السنة الدراسية ستتأثر إذا استمرت الحرب بين الجيش وقوات الدعم السريع لفترة بعد عيد الفطر.” “سيتأثر العام الدراسي لأنه الموعد المقرر لجلوس بعض الفصول للامتحانات النهائية”، مشيرًا إلى أنه من المقرر أن يكون العام الدراسي ١٨٠ يومًا, لكنها بدأت متأخرة ٥٠ يوما بعد تعليقها لمدة ٣٠ يوما بسبب إضراب المعلمين.

وأشار إلى الجهود المبذولة لتعويض ٨٠ يوما التي ضاعت بزيادة ساعات الدراسة خلال النهار وجعل السبت يوما دراسيا وليس عطلة, بالإضافة إلى تمديد العام الدراسي لمدة ١٥ يومًا إضافيًا، وقال: “إذا استمرت الحرب بين الطرفين، يصبح العلاج مستحيلًا, لذلك تصبح السنة الدراسة غير معتمدة دوليا.

وأشار إلى الجهود المبذولة لتعويض ٨٠ يوما التي ضاعت بزيادة ساعات الدراسة خلال النهار وجعل السبت يوما دراسيا وليس عطلة, بالإضافة إلى تمديد العام الدراسي لمدة ١٥ يومًا إضافيًا، وقال: “إذا استمرت الحرب بين الطرفين، يصبح العلاج مستحيلًا, لذلك تصبح السنة الدراسة غير معتمدة دوليا.

إلا أن مدير التعليم الثانوي في وزارة التربية عبد الكريم حسن, وقال الشرق الأوسط إن العام الدراسي لن يتأثر بالحرب بين طرفي النزاع لأنه تم تعديل التقويم بحيث تكون امتحانات الثانوية العامة الذي عقد في العاشر من يونيو المقبل. ومع ذلك، لم يحدد عدد الطلاب الذين سيجلسون للامتحانات لأن الوزارة لم تنته من عدها. وتابع، “في العام الماضي، جلس حوالي ٥٠٠ ألف طالب وطالبة، وعادة ما يكون عدد من يجلسون أكثر من العام السابق,” مشيرا إلى أن طلاب السنة الأولى والثانية سيجلسون للامتحانات النهائية في ١٣ مايو، مشيرا إلى صعوبة إدراج المدارس التي تأثرت.

وقال مدير الإدارة العامة للتعليم للمرحلة الأساسية بولاية الخرطوم محمد حمدون البشير، إن التقويم الأكاديمي قد انتهى، وامتحان التعليم الأساسي, والتي تشمل المرحلتين الابتدائية والمتوسطة، تبقى ومن المقرر أن تبدأ في الخامس من الشهر المقبل، وامتحانات الشهادة الابتدائية في ٢٢ من نفس الشهر. وأضاف البشير، “قبل اندلاع الحرب بين الأطراف المتصارعة, وتقوم إدارة القياس والتقويم التربوي في الوزارة بتنفيذ الإجراءات النهائية لإدخال بيانات الطلبة الذين يفحصون الشهادة الابتدائية, ولكن تم إيقافه بسبب الأحداث الجارية.”

تشير منظمة الأمم المتحدة للطفولة (اليونيسيف) إلى أن أكثر من ٧ ملايين طفل يحتاجون إلى التعليم المنتظم، بالإضافة إلى حاجة أكثر من ٨ ملايين طفل إلى المساعدة الإنسانية. وقال الخبير التربوي أحمد مصطفى لالشرق الأوسط إن الرؤية لم تتضح بعد حول مصير العام الدراسي، ولكن إذا استمرت الحرب بين الجيش وقوات الدعم السريع، فإن, وسيؤثر حتما على العام الدراسي وعلى كل الشعب السوداني، ودعا طرفي النزاع إلى الجلوس للحوار.

هيام مختار

Educational Challenges in St. Lucia

Introduction

St. Lucia is a small island located in the eastern Caribbean, just on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean. St. Lucia’s population of 167,591 is composed of 4 primary ethnic groups: Black/African descent (85.3%), mixed (10.9%), East Indian (2.2%), and other (1.6%).i The economy is upheld by three pillars: services (i.e., tourism) (82.8%), industry (14.2%), and agriculture (i.e., exports of bananas, cassava, coconuts, and other fruits/vegetables) (2.9%).ii

The right to education is protected by Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), which holds that “Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all based on merit”.iii

The St. Lucian Ministry of Education (MOE) affirmed these commitments in the Education Act of 1999 (revised 2001), Section 14, The Right to Education, which holds that “subject to available resources, all persons are entitled to receive an educational programme appropriate to their needs”.iv Furthermore, education is compulsory from ages 5-15.v

In addition, St. Lucia’s educational goals are reflected by the national Education for All (EFA) report. These goals include: “ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality; ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programs”.vi However, St. Lucia continues to struggle with lack of funding/teacher training, and hair discrimination in academic settings. In this article, I will analyse these issues in the St. Lucian context, and outline recommendations.

Corporal Punishment

Corporal punishment stems from St. Lucia’s history of colonialism and slavery.vii St. Lucia was colonised by the English between 1605-1638, who exterminated the indigenous Arawak and Kalinago Caribs from the island. The island was quickly populated with an enslaved population of people from African descent. Slave owners would beat and torture these enslaved people to discourage revolts. Children were subject to beatings from both slave owners and elders (often as a means of ensuring they would not upset slave owners, and thus put themselves in danger). These power dynamics solidified corporal punishment as a cultural institution.

Furthermore, the British colonial and penal codes legalised it at home and in school.viii Section 50 of the Education Act 1999, permitted corporal punishment:

“(1) In the enforcement of discipline in public schools, assisted schools and private educational institutions, degrading or injurious punishment shall not be administered. (2) Corporal punishment may be administered where no other punishment is considered suitable or effective, and only by the principal, deputy principal or any teacher appointed by the Chief Education Officer”.ix

However, these practices have been adjusted. The Child Justice Act of 2018 and the CHILD (care, protection and adoption) Act of 2018 both reformed the state of corporal punishment in schools. Furthermore, in January 2019, an Order on the “suspension and ultimate abolition of corporal punishment in schools” was presented in the Cabinet.x It reformed section 50 of the Education Act 1999 by making CP illegal from 1 May 2019. Nyaley Lewis, an educator in St. Lucia, discusses her experiences with corporal punishment as a student and a teacher.

Ms. Lewis recalls that in infant and primary school, students would receive “a certain number of lashes”, often with a ruler, as a punishment. However, she recalls that children often “couldn’t tell what they had done wrong”. The violence she experienced still sits with her to this day. “I remember one time when I had been bullied…I had acted in self-defence…” as a result, the teacher had forced her (and the bully) to “kneel down in front of the class” and called them “wild animals”. She still remembers the teacher who did this, and “feels like [she] was done wrong”.

However, in practice, St. Lucia has made significant strides in eradicating corporal punishment in schools. Ms. Lewis informed Broken Chalk that “You’re not allowed to do it…nobody really does it anymore”. Instead, as one of the youngest teachers at her school, she aims to make her students feel comfortable in class. Ms. Lewis’ experiences align with the amendments made to Section 50 of the Education Act of 1999.

The Order on the suspension and abolition of corporal punishment affirms Article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), which maintains that “States Parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child…”.xi

The order also enforces Article 28 (2) of the CRC: “States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that school discipline is administered in a manner consistent with the child’s human dignity and in conformity with the present Convention”.xii These motions reflect progress with respect to corporal punishment in the Saint Lucian education system.

Funding & Teaching

In 2022, the St. Lucian government spent approximately 4.6% of its $2.5 billion GDP on education.xiii However, funding for impact research into the education system is often lacking.xiv This results in a disconnect between policy makers and the needs of students/teachers. SUMMA, an educational research institute, reports that this disconnect hinders St. Lucia’s education system.xv Research into policy impacts could create more effective education policies.

In addition, teachers require more training, support, and incentives from the government.xvi Professional development –such as, addressing gender gaps, and pedagogical training– remains a persistent issue. However, educators often feel unable to adapt to “multiple intelligences in the classroom”.xvii This results in achievement disparities between students and career stagnation for teachers.

Funding is central to this issue. Professional evaluations are necessary for teachers to receive benefits and promotions.xviii The certification process–i.e., qualifications which demarcate a secondary education teacher from a graduate teacher–remains underfunded.xix Teachers are therefore limited in their abilities to cater to different students’ needs. In addition, lack of teachers involved in school curricula and assessments reduce educators’ agency over the material being taught.xx Funding the systems which allow teachers to improve may allow them to help students grow as learners. Interestingly, the percentage of trained primary school teachers in St. Lucia has been relatively stable since 2008.

From 2008 to 2019, approximately 89-91% of primary teachers have been trained.xxi In contrast, only 74% of secondary teachers were trained in 2019.xxii These figures demonstrate steady improvement from previous years. However, due to a lack of available data, it is unclear if those trends have continued through the pandemic into 2023. The lack of information partially affirms SUMMA’s indication that the government is not investing enough in impact analysis.

Hair Discrimination

Although 85% of the St. Lucian population is Black, children with afro hair are systematically discriminated against in schools. Teachers discourage children from wearing locks, braids, or even large natural afros.xxiii However, these policies do not apply to children with non-curly hair (i.e., white/Indian/some mixed-race students). In practice, students are forced to shave their heads and restrict their self-expression, which contradicts the UN Charter on the Right of the Child.

Article 13 of The Convention of The Rights of The Child enshrines children’s right to freedom of expression.xxiv In turn, the Education Act of 1999–St. Lucia’s primary document governing education–maintains that students must adhere to standards “approved by the Chief Education Officer or the principal as the case may be, with respect to: (i) cleanliness and tidiness of the person”.xxv These standards must be revised to accommodate Black hair.

For example, in 2022, a Black student was banned from class due to the length of his hair.xxvi The student’s parents have since brought the issue to court, which ruled that the student be allowed to attend classes. However, it ignited a conversation surrounding discriminatory grooming policies in St. Lucia. Shawn Edward, the Minister of Education, emphasised that “this is 2022, some of the policies–some of the rules–which would have informed decisions at the school level 10 or 15 years

ago need to be revised”.xxvii

Ms. Lewis has also observed these dynamics as a student and in her own classroom. As a student, she enjoyed exploring her identity through her hair. However, she—like many other Black students—was not allowed to wear her afro. Teachers and students are still discouraged from wearing their natural hair. Ms. Lewis, nevertheless, actively tries to wear her afro while teaching. The politics surrounding grooming standards are also gendered. Ms. Lewis notes that “Girls are still not allowed to wear an afro”. The issue, as Mr. Edward alluded to above, is rooted in generational values. The older generation of teachers grew up with standards of cleanliness defined by British colonialists which emphasised maintaining authority.

Recommendations

The St. Lucian education system has three core limitations: funding, training teachers, and hair discrimination. St. Lucia’s budget must allocate resources towards (1) impact research and (2) training teachers. Impact research will help the government evaluate the efficacy of different policies. This can increase responsiveness to the needs of students and teachers. St. Lucia’s financial constraints mean that principals must carefully prioritise their resources. Students must be at the centre, but teacher training, which will support students, should follow. Second, training teachers is integral to career development and supporting the needs of different learners. This could mitigate the learning deficit between boys and girls, and students with learning disabilities. Third, the government must apply pressure on principals who discriminate against Black hair styles. New parameters of ‘acceptability’ need to be adopted. In doing so, students with different hairstyles can be secure in their right to self-expression in school.

Each of these issues have already been addressed either through laws or civil society. However, the division between these spheres has resulted in miscommunication between social interests and governmental proposals. A greater effort to solve problems, revise policies, and evaluate impact, is necessary on both sides.

By Benjamin Koponen

(Instagram account: benkoponen)

(LinkedIn: Benjamin Koponen)

Photo by Jean-Marc Astesana on flickr

References

Bailey, C. B., Robinson, T. R., & Coore-Desai, C. C. D. (2014). Corporal Punishment in the Caribbean: Attitudes and Practices. In Social and Economic Studies (Vol. 63, Issue 3/4, pp. 207–233). https://www.jstor.org/stable/44732891

Chitolie-Joseph, E. C. J., Ministry of Education, & Corporate Planning Unit. (20145). Education for All National Review Report: Saint Lucia. Saint Lucia Ministry of Education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230028.

Convention on the rights of the child (1989) Treaty no. 27531. United Nations Treaty Series, 1577. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/crc.pdf.

Education Act, 1999 (No. 41 of 1999), Part 2. Division 1. www.natlex.ilo.org.

Good Morning St. Lucia. (2022, September 28). Nigel Edwin Speaks on Hair Discrimination at Schools In Saint Lucia [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VVXuaBLAPmQ&t=1s

Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. (Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

Saint Lucia – The World Factbook. (2023). https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saint-lucia

Stuart, J. (2022, September 6). Father suing St Mary’s College for denying son entry due to hair. Loop News. Https://stlucia.loopnews.com/content/father-suing-st-marys-college-denying-son-entry-due-hair

The Central Statistical Office of Saint Lucia. (2021). Percentage of Trained Teachers in Secondary Schools, 1992/1993 to 2018/2019 [Dataset]. The Central Statistical Office of Saint Lucia. https://stats.gov.lc/subjects/society/education/percentage-of-trained-teachers-in-secondary-schools-1992-1993-to-2018-2019/

United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights | United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights#:~:text=Article%2026,on%20the%20basis%20of%20merit.

World Bank Open Data. (2022). World Bank Open Data. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=LC

i Saint Lucia – The World Factbook. (2023). https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saint-lucia

ii Saint Lucia – The World Factbook. (2023). https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saint-lucia

iii United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights | United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights#:~:text=Article%2026,on%20the%20basis%20of%20merit.

iv Chitolie-Joseph, E. C. J., Ministry of Education, & Corporate Planning Unit. (2014). Education for All National Review Report: Saint Lucia. Saint Lucia Ministry of Education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230028.

v Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. (Link does not work.

Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

vi Chitolie-Joseph, E. C. J., Ministry of Education, & Corporate Planning Unit. (2014). Education

for All National Review Report: Saint Lucia. Saint Lucia Ministry of Education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230028.

vii Bailey, C. B., Robinson, T. R., & Coore-Desai, C. C. D. (2014). Corporal Punishment in the Caribbean: Attitudes and Practices. In Social and Economic Studies (Vol. 63, Issue 3/4, pp. 207–233). www.jstor.org/stable/44732891

viii Chitolie-Joseph, E. C. J., Ministry of Education, & Corporate Planning Unit. (2015). 

Education for All National Review Report: Saint Lucia. Saint Lucia Ministry of Education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230028.

ix Bailey, C. B., Robinson, T. R., & Coore-Desai, C. C. D. (2014). Corporal Punishment in the

Caribbean: Attitudes and Practices. In Social and Economic Studies (Vol. 63, Issue 3/4, pp. 207–233). www.jstor.org/stable/44732891

x Bailey, C. B., Robinson, T. R., & Coore-Desai, C. C. D. (2014). Corporal Punishment in the
Caribbean: Attitudes and Practices. In Social and Economic Studies (Vol. 63, Issue 3/4, pp. 207–233). www.jstor.org/stable/44732891

xi Convention on the rights of the child (1989) Treaty no. 27531. United Nations Treaty Series,

1577, (p.5). https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/crc.pdf

xii Bailey, C. B., Robinson, T. R., & Coore-Desai, C. C. D. (2014). Corporal Punishment in the Caribbean: Attitudes and Practices. In Social and Economic Studies (Vol. 63, Issue 3/4, pp. 207–233). https://www.jstor.org/stable/44732891

xiii World Bank Open Data. (2022). World Bank Open Data. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=LC

xiv Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile.

https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xv Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xvi Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xvii Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xviii Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xix Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xx Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile.

https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xxi The Central Statistical Office of Saint Lucia. (2021). Trained Teachers in Primary Schools, 1994/1995 to 2019/2020 [Dataset]. https://stats.gov.lc/subjects/society/education/trained-teachers-in-primary-schools-1994-1995-to-2019-2020/

xxii The Central Statistical Office of Saint Lucia. (2021). Percentage of Trained Teachers in Secondary Schools, 1992/1993 to 2018/2019 [Dataset]. The Central Statistical Office of Saint Lucia. https://stats.gov.lc/subjects/society/education/percentage-of-trained-teachers-in-secondary-schools-1992-1993-to-2018-2019/

xxiii Stuart, J. (2022, September 6). Father suing St Mary’s College for denying son entry due to hair. Loop News. Https://stlucia.loopnews.com/content/father-suing-st-marys-college-denying-son-entry-due-hair

xxiv Convention on the rights of the child (1989) Treaty no. 27531. United Nations Treaty Series, 1577, (p.4). https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/crc.pdf.

xxv Education Act, 1999 (No. 41 of 1999), Part 2. Division 1. www.natlex.ilo.org.

xxvi Good Morning St. Lucia. (2022, September 28). Nigel Edwin Speaks on Hair Discrimination at Schools In Saint Lucia [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VVXuaBLAPmQ&t=1s

xxvii Good Morning St. Lucia. (2022, September 28). Nigel Edwin Speaks on Hair Discrimination at Schools In Saint Lucia [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VVXuaBLAPmQ&t=1s