Chapter B: Access to Education, Participation and Progress – Summary B1

  1. B1 Who participates in education?

Compulsory education

In most OECD countries, compulsory education starts in general with primary education; by the age of 6. However, there are some varieties among OECD and partner countries. Some countries have an educational system that requires parents to enroll their children to compulsory education at an earlier age; while in other countries such as Estonia, Finland, Indonesia, Lithuania, Russia, and South Africa the primary school only begins at the age of 7. Compulsory education usually ends with the completion or partial completion of upper secondary education at the age of 16 on average across OECD countries. Moreover, on average across OECD countries, full enrolment (the age range when at least 90% of the population is enrolled in education) lasts 14 years, starting from the age of 4 to the age of 17. The period of the latter lasts between 11 and 16 years in most countries and reaches 17 in Norway.

In sum, in all OECD countries, compulsory education comprises primary and lower secondary education. In most countries, there is almost universal coverage of basic education, since enrolment rates among 6- to 14-year-olds reached or exceeded 95% in all OECD countries.

 

Participation of 15-19 years-olds in education

With time, countries have improved their upper secondary programmes in terms of diversity. This phenomenon is the result of the increasing demand for upper secondary education and the aftermath of significant changes in curricula and labour-market needs. Indeed, curricula have developed, from general and vocational programmes to offering more comprehensive programmes that include both types of learning, leading to more academic and professional opportunities.

On average across OECD countries, 84% of the population is enrolled in education between the age of 15 and 19. The highest share of enrollments rate is in Belgium, Ireland, and Slovenia, with 94%. However, the enrolment rate did not improve in all OECD countries; for example, Germany, Hungary, and Iceland have witnessed a fall of more than 3 percentage points among 15- to 19-year-olds. Therefore, the share of students enrolled in each education level and at each stage shed lights the various educational systems and directions among countries. The highest rate of diversification in terms of academic and professional choices, is when students reach the age of 18 years old.

An additional important factor to analyse the data on ‘’Who Participates in Education?’’, is the education enrolment per gender. Indeed, studies show that female students outnumber male students in almost all age groups and at all education levels. The difference of enrolment rates can be explained through school drop-out and, indirectly, to lower school performance and grade repetition. On average across OECD countries, boys are more likely to repeat a grade in general programmes than girls and represent 61% of the repeaters in lower secondary education and 57% in upper secondary education. Consequently, women have higher enrolment rates and better performance, while repetition rates are higher among men. However, the share of repeaters varies by country with its respective educational system and by educational level.

Participation of 20- to 24-year-olds in education

A general indicator of the transition from secondary to tertiary education is the decrease of enrolment rates on average. The average enrolment rate of 20- to 24-year-olds age group across OECD countries is almost the half of 15- to 19-year-olds: only 41% of the population aged 20-24 is enrolled in education. On average across OECD countries, 37% of the female population in this group age and 29% of their male peers are enrolled in tertiary education. The gender gap in enrolment increases even more with this age group.

 

Participation of adults aged 25 and older in education

Among this age category, the enrolment in education becomes less common. Indeed, the OECD average enrolment rate in all levels of education reaches 16% among 25- to 29-year-olds. Moreover, the gender gap also decreases since enrolment rates are lower above age 24. Enrolment rates are only 1 percentage point higher for 25- to 29-year-old women on average. And finally, the OECD average enrolment rate for the population aged 40 to 64 is 2%.

 

Subnational variations in enrolment

Subnational variation in enrolment patterns emphasises on the equality of access to education across a country, as well as long term labour-market opportunities and the value of durable learning for levels beyond compulsory education or tertiary education. In addition, in more than half of the countries with data available, the difference of the enrolment rate between subnational regions is more significant than the difference of national rates across various OECD countries.

 

Sources

Summarized by Faical Al Azib from OECD, Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators – Indicator B1; B2; B3. Access to Education, Participation and Progress: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/b35a14e5-en.pdf?expires=1645351809&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=0B361D22CD2C8DE309F5589F172BD8A2

Challenges In The Educational System of South Africa

In order to comply with both national and international human rights standards, South Africa must tackle several obstacles in their educational sphere. This article will present some of the most prevalent educational challenges in the country.

 

Infrastructure

One of the main problems in the educational sector today is the facilities available to students. It is of utmost importance that schools include facilities that are safe and secure for children, and the necessary equipment for students to pursue their education. According to Equal Education (EE, 2016) in 2013, the Minister of Basic Education, Angie Montshegka, accepted a law obliging schools throughout the country to have at least water, electricity, internet, safe classrooms with up to 40 students in class, security, and the necessary facilities to study and practice different sports. Although the target was set for 2016, today, many schools have problems far worse than a bad internet connection. The country is looking towards meeting the set goals, but there is still a long way to go. Numerous articles highlight reported deaths of learners due to poor facility infrastructure. Additionally, the inadequate sanitation of the schools is an issue that affects students’ health. An example of this is seen in their toilets and pit latrines, where students are at risk of health issues in light of their improper hygiene. These obstacles prevent students from focusing on their education and development.

 

Inequality in education

Inequality is largely visible in South African schools. According to Amnesty International, children in the top 200 schools score higher in maths than children in the other 6,600 schools. Other statistics highlight that more than 75% of nine-year-olds cannot read for meaning. In some provinces, the percentage is as high as 91%. The educational system is still healing from the Apartheid era, resulting in children being treated differently because of their background, wealth, or skin tone. The Quality of Primary Education in South Africa, a UNESCO report, states that, theoretically, all children have equal access to the three levels of education in the country. However, many institutions schooling students from low-income communities have failed to improve the quality of education they provide. The government must tackle the problem of poverty and education.

Poor education

Furthermore, the schools’ quality of education is a prevalent issue in South Africa. According to research undertaken by Gustafsson in 2021, the retirement of teachers in South Africa will reach a peak number by 2030, which will consequentially result in the need for newly trained educators and the restructuring of classrooms and institutions. Currently, half of the classes have 30 students per class, but the other 50% can exceed up to 50 children in a class. To reduce the numbers, it is estimated that around 100,000 new teachers enter the educational system, which requires largescale training and financing.

Another challenge that the educational sector in South Africa faces today is the quality of the instructors. Over 5,000 of the current teachers are underqualified for their profession. Instructors are not competitive in the job market; they have little understanding of the curricula and no pedagogic competency, leading to students graduating from school without the necessary knowledge.

 

Cycle of illiteracy

Finally, according to the OECD Report from 2019, South Africa has the highest share of people aged between 20 to 24 in the NEET sector (neither employment nor education). South Africa scored almost 50% on this criterion, the largest of all the countries examined by the OECD report. Professor Khuluvhe’s 2021 report discusses the seriousness of the illiteracy problem, stating that, in 2019, the rate of illiterate adults (over the age of 20) was 12,1%, or around 4,4 million. This equates to a considerable part of the population not achieving a 7th grade or higher level of education. Illiteracy poses far-reaching consequences for the population, including uneducated offspring and non-contribution to the society, thus harming the country’s economy. South Africa needs to tackle this issue and minimise the percentage of illiteracy as far as possible.

 

 

References

1. EE. (2006, July 19). School Infrastructure. Eqaleducation.Org.Za. Retrieved February 17, 2022, from https://equaleducation.org.za/campaigns/school-infrastructure/

2. Amnesty International. (2020, February 7). South Africa: Broken and unequal education perpetuating poverty and inequality. Www.Amnesty.Org. Retrieved February 17, 2022, from https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/02/south-africa-broken-and-unequal-education-perpetuating-poverty-and-inequality/

3. Gustafsson, M. (2021, August 26). A teacher retirement wave is about to hit South Africa: what it means for class size. The Conversation. Retrieved February 17, 2022, from https://theconversation.com/a-teacher-retirement-wave-is-about-to-hit-south-africa-what-it-means-for-class-size-164345

4. Khuluvhe, M. K. (2021, March 1). Adult illiteracy in South Africa. Www.Dhet.Gov.Za. Retrieved February 17, 2022, from https://www.dhet.gov.za/Planning%20Monitoring%20and%20Evaluation%20Coordination/Fact%20Sheet%20on%20Adult%20Illiteracy%20in%20South%20Africa%20-%20March%202021.pdf

5. Editor. (2019, December 27). Opinion: The Challenges Facing The Education System In South Africa. iAfrica. Retrieved February 17, 2022, from https://iafrica.com/opinion-the-challenges-facing-the-education-system-in-south-africa/

Summary of Indicator D4. How much time do teachers and school heads spend teaching and working?

Statutory working and teaching hours only partially determine the actual workload of teachers and school heads, nonetheless they do help understanding what is expected from teachers and school heads in different countries.

Together with salaries (see Indicator D3) and average class sizes (see Indicator D2), this indicator presents some key measures of the working lives of teachers and school heads. Furthermore, it can affect the amount of financial resources countries allocate to education (see Indicator C7).

Teaching Time of Teachers

On average, across OECD countries and economies, pre-primary teachers are required to teach 989 hours per year (for 195 days). At the pre-primary level there is the most variation in hours required (from 532 hours of teaching per year in Mexico to 1,755 in Germany). These variations result from the combination of school year length and number of teaching hours per day.

The OECD daily teaching average is of more than 4 hours per day (791 hours per year) in primary school.

Whereas lower secondary school teachers teach on average 723 hours per year. However, teaching time varies considerably depending on country (from less than 600 hours in Finland to more than 1000 hours in Costa Rica, see Figure D4.1).

In some countries, the teaching time requirements may vary during a teacher’s career. For example, new teachers may have a reduced teaching load to give them time to settle in and older teachers may have reduced teaching load to allow them to keep teaching despite their age.

Therefore, teaching time tends to decrease as the level of education increases. The exceptions are Chile and Scotland (UK), where teachers are required to teach the same number of hours at all levels of education.

The largest difference in teaching time requirements is between the pre-primary and primary levels of education. In the Czech Republic, Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Latvia and Slovenia, pre-primary school teachers are required to teach at least twice the number of hours per year as primary school teachers (see Figure D4.1)

Statutory teaching time refers to teaching time as defined by regulations. However, actual teaching time is the annual average hours spent teaching students, including overtime. Hence, the data suggests that the two parameters do not always coincide. Indeed, in Poland, lower secondary teachers teach 21% more hours than what is defined by regulations.

Teaching Time of School Heads

In almost half of the countries with available data, school heads in pre-primary institutions are also required to teach.

As for teachers, in countries where there are teaching requirements, the teaching hours required from school heads decrease as the level of education increases.

Working Time of Teachers

Countries differ in how they allocate teachers’ working time for each activity. More than half of OECD countries specify how much time teachers should be available at school, whereas other countries do not specify where teachers should fulfil their working hours.

In 17 OECD countries and economies, teachers’ statutory working time includes working time during students’ school holidays in at least one level of education. This can further the variation among countries in the annual working hours of teaching.

Teaching is the main component of teachers’ workloads, however, other activities such as assessing students, preparing lessons, correcting students’ work, in-service training and staff meetings should also be considered when analysing the demands placed on teachers.

In fact, on average, teachers spend only 44% of their working time teaching.

Teachers not only perform the non-teaching tasks that are required by regulations or school heads, they also often perform tasks voluntarily. In at least 17 countries and economies at the general lower secondary level, individual teachers decide themselves whether to engage in extracurricular activities.

Participation in professional development activities is pivotal for teachers at all levels of education, in fact it is mandatory in 23 countries.

In general, non-teaching tasks and responsibilities of teachers do not vary much across educational levels.

 

Figure D4.4. Task requirements of teachers, by tasks and responsibilities (2020)
Lower secondary teachers in public institutions

Figure D4.4. Task requirements of teachers, by tasks and responsibilities (2020)

Working time of school heads

As for teachers, many OECD countries define school heads’ statutory working time through regulations or contracts. Only in England (United Kingdom), the Flemish Community of Belgium, Germany and Italy are there no official documents specifying the working time for school heads.

On average, school heads work 212-215 days per year and their statutory working hours do not vary much across educational levels (average of 1,634 hours per year). Across all levels of education, school heads in Chile work the highest number of hours (1,998 hours per year), whereas those in Mexico and Ireland the least (below 1,300 hours per year).

In two/thirds of OECD countries with available data, school heads working time includes working during students’ school holidays (from 1 week in Austria and the Netherlands to 11 in Turkey).

In addition to fulfilling their managment and leadership roles, school heads can be expected to perform other tasks such as managing human/financial resources, organising professional development activities and students’ educational activities, and teaching students, as well as facilitating good relations with parents, education inspectorates and/or the government.

In most OECD countries, the tasks and responsibilities required from school heads do not vary across educational levels.

 

Source

Data are from the 2020 OECD-INES-NESLI Survey on Working Time of Teachers and School Heads and refer to the school year 2019/20 (statutory information) or school year 2018/19 (actual data).

 

Summarized by Francisca Orrego Galarce from OECD, Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators – Indicator D4. How much time do teachers and school heads spend teaching and working?

Summary of Indicator A1. To what level have adults studied?

This subchapter focuses on output indicators consisting of features exhibited in educational systems, the most important being the level of education attained thus far, disaggregating the data into below/above secondary education, male/female, native/foreign-born, and regional gaps that remain to having equal access to lifelong learning opportunities in preparation for the socio-economic demands of the labour market. The data guides how today and tomorrow’s policymakers can instil positive impact by better observing the inputs of:

 

‘[classroom settings], pedagogical content and delivery of the curriculum… [and] analyse the organisation of schools and education systems, including governance, autonomy and specific policies to regulate the participation of students in certain programmes.’

 

Taking a positive approach, the report notes that, across the member states of the OECD, the average share of upper- or post-secondary (non-tertiary) degrees held by 25-34-year-olds dropped from 44% in 2010 to 40% in 2020 because of the increased rate of young adults attaining tertiary education, with 39% attaining this level in comparison to the 21% of young adults who remain with below upper-secondary education. The latter level still decreased significantly across OECD states, standing once at 27% in 2010, which can be explained by the drop in women at this level from 27% in 2010 to 20% in 2020, whilst men saw a drop from 26% to 22%. This can be explained due to the 11% rise in women attaining tertiary education from 31% to 42% in the last decade, whilst men saw a 7% rise from 28% to 35%.

 

Despite the positive output results the above chart illustrates, the report highlights that unequal access to educational resources remains, which may impact a state’s lack of skills demanded by the labour market, being socially engaged, and retaining higher incomes, which increases the standard of living. It has become a fact that to meet the bare requirements for employment and stable social connections, an individual requires an upper-secondary level of education. 21% of adults in OECD states left school before attaining this level of education, which is further worsened by an unequal balance of men over women and varies by state. Therefore, the average OECD rate of young men and women with below-secondary stands at 16% and 13% respectively but then sees states like Spain and Iceland where the gender gap stands at a 10% difference and similar gaps in Canada, Costa, Rica, Mexico, South Africa, and other OECD and partner states.

 

Another issue is the reduced rate of women entering higher forms of tertiary education compared to men. 56% of women attain a bachelor’s, 54% a master’s, and 45% a doctorate. The gap becomes more visible if we narrow down to the level of subjects women graduated in, with the majority from health and welfare, but then a minority in the S.T.E.M. fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.

Across OECD states, foreign-born adults, ranging from 25 to-64-years-old, make up an average of 17% of the total population who contribute to a state’s human capital and services. This can be seen with the outbreak of COVID-19, when it accounted for 24% and 16% of all medical doctors and nurses, albeit varied by group size and state. The capital, knowledge, and skillset this group brings for OECD states are invaluable; however, gaps in the sphere of education reluctantly remain. The average for below and above upper-secondary and tertiary education for native- and foreign-born adults stands at 19% and 22%, 44% and 37%, and 37% and 41%, respectively. This again varies by country, where the majority of OECD states have a large share of foreign-born adults holding below upper-secondary education but then reversed in Australia, Estonia, Hungary, Israel, Luxembourg, New Zealand, and the U.K. Whilst Canada sees 70% of foreign-born adults attaining tertiary education in comparison to 56% of natives, Italy experiences the opposite with 21% of foreign-born and 13% of natives. Regarding Italy and other states sharing similar rates, the report notes that if a state has a high rate of below upper-secondary attainment amongst natives, foreigners experience the same, which increasingly impacts their literacy and other essential skills.

 

The last issue focuses on the regional inequalities in educational attainment between those residing inside and outside capital cities or federal districts. In Brazil, the share of 25 to 64-year-old adults attaining below upper-secondary education is 30% in the federal district and 67% in Alagoas, with similar gaps above 30% found in Canada, Colombia, Portugal, Mexico, and Turkey. On the other hand, it was concluded that three out of four adults in Moscow attained tertiary education, and two out of three adults in both the District of Columbia and Greater London capital regions attained the same. It was thus noted that reducing the number of subregions results in a reduction of regional inequalities.

 

Summarized By Karl Baldacchino from [Education at a Glance 2021 Subchapter A.1]