Mental Distress and Systematic Destruction: Gazan Schooling during Belligerent Invasions

Mental Distress and Systematic Destruction: Gazan Schooling during Belligerent Invasions

By Valeria Romano

Introduction

As the Palestinian genocide unfolds in front of our eyes, Palestinian people, scholars and journalists around the world reflect on the future of the nation. Israeli troops destroyed civilians’ houses, healthcare buildings, cultural centers, and educational institutions. In October 2024, Palestinian schools- which are now operating as bomb shelters- suffered from 64 raids[i] (Lister, Ibrahim, and Michaelis, 2024). Israeli troops killed more than 38,000 Palestinians since October 7th and the number is most likely higher, given the corpses still under the rubble and the indirectly death causes specifically, people killed by the harsh living conditions created by the attacks[ii] (Al Jazeera, 2024). Of the verified deaths, 44% are school-aged kids, which adds to the 2199 kids killed by Israeli raids between 2000 and 2021[iii](Farajallah, 2022, p. 113). Moreover, at least 17,000 Palestinian kids are living separated from their parents, and more than ten children a day lose their limbs[iv] (Child Rights Committee, 2024). Israeli authorities attack the future of Palestine by aiming at its schools -the core of education, thus of societies and cultures- and its children, who are forced to live through constant warfare. Experiencing war-related traumas highly impacts children’s prospects. This paper will delve into the consequences of chronic warfare on children’s mental health and a country’s academic infrastructure.

The article will start by presenting a brief historical background on the Occupied Palestinian Territories; then, it will unveil the mental health effects of experiencing constant conflict-related stress, connecting it to the case of Gaza -and education. Both Palestinians living in Gaza and Palestinian refugees will be focused upon

 

Background

 

Palestine, officially the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT) is a country in the Levantine. It encompasses the Gaza Strip and the West Bank.

 

From the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages, various populations came and conquered the region, including Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and Mamluks, just to name a few. In 1516, Palestine became part of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans ruled the region until the end of the First World War and Palestinian cities became pivotal commercial sites[v] (The Institute For Palestine Studies, 2016). As the Ottoman Empire was defeated in the war and its land split, the British got a mandate from the League of Nations to establish their administration in the Palestinian region. Such mandate was made on the promise of “the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish  people.”[vi] (Britannica, 2018). The start of British rule correlates with the tensing up of the relationships between different religious groups that during the Ottoman Empire lived together peacefully. The hostilities peaked in 1947, when Palestine was divided into two States: Israel, for Jewish people, and Palestine, for Arab natives. Despite the premises, the partition did not fulfill the peaceful prospects, as already in 1948 Israel started experiencing disputes with nearby territories. The Nakba ended with various armistices, de-facto Israeli borders, and Palestinian displacement, as 400, or more, Palestinian-Arab towns were destroyed[vii] (Britannica, 2024). Since then, people in the OPT experienced one raid after another, and rebelled against them: the Six Days War (1967), the First Intifada (1987–1993), the Al-Aqsa Intifada (2000–2005), the Operation Cast Lead (December 2008 –January 2009), the Operation Pillar of Defense (November 2012), the Operation Protective Edge (July–August 2014), the Unity Intifada (May 2021)[viii] (Farajallah, 2022, p. 113 ).

 

War Trauma and Gazan kids

 

In recent years, scholars have carried out several research projects on the effects of chronic warfare on the mental state of young people. Such consequences depend on various factors: the violence one witnessed, the duration of the conflict, and the socio-cultural meaning of [mental] health. The most common psychological disorder affecting young kids is PTSD – Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder-[ix] (Catani, 2018, pp. 104-105), whereas, in later childhood, externalization of behavioral symptoms is more common, such as conduct defiant disorder[x] (Frounfelker et al, 2019) . Other consequences include sleep problems, panic attacks, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and depression[xi] (idem.). Moreover, war-related trauma also manifests in family and peer interactions, and stigma, especially in post-conflict and post-migration settings. Experiencing chronic warfare causes epigenetic changes leading to potential long-term health and development alterations as living through armed conflict activates unique DNA methylation changes[xii] (Neuroscience News, 2024).

In the case of Palestinian children, researchers have examined the mental aftermath of the Second Intifada and found an increase in aggressiveness of parents towards their children, and vice versa, more frequent nightmares in school-aged kids, and worse grades[xiii] (Farajallah, 2022, p. 114). Children in Gaza witnessed at least three war-related traumatic events and 95% percent of them live in fear, constant grief- and depression, high emotional distress, and more than half have contemplated suicide[xiv] (Ghazy, 2022). The disorders mentioned above relate to impairments in daily functions[xv] (Schöler et al., 2024).

 

Chronic warfare is a multidimensional situation that deteriorates one’s mental health. Studies carried out in Western countries argue for a correlation between the disintegration of one’s psychological sphere and academic achievements. Lower depression and positive psychological well-being relate to better educational performance[xvi] (Duncan et al., 2021). Suffering from PSTD lowers the chances of completing educational milestones, including finishing compulsory education[xvii] ((Vilaplana-Pérez et al., 2020). Children with higher social skills are more likely to graduate[xviii] (Idem.).  Moreover, externalizing symptoms correlates to lower academic achievements, and having attention disorders predicts lower reading development and mathematical skills

Chronic warfare also impacts the structure and the “behind-the-scenes” of schooling. In traditional literature, conflict means fewer financial resources are meant for education improvements and that families cannot afford education-related expenses[xx] (UNICEF, 2016). Teachers may flee, and students stop attending lessons as schools become unsafe sites[xxi] (Idem.). However, these issues do not fully represent the situation in Gaza where nearly 90% of educational buildings have been destroyed or permanently damaged[xxii] (Inger et al., 2024). The attacks continue and Gazan students experience gaps and discontinuity in their education as schools closed in October 2023. Some volunteers have organized basic lessons in tents, but school-aged children are more worried about their next meal but spending their time selling objects in the street and searching for water with their parents[xxiii] (Stack & Shbair, 2024).

 

Palestinian refugees and education

 

The ongoing Israeli attacks on Palestinian territories have forced people to leave their homes, flee to other countries, and become refugees. This precarious status of becoming refugees leads to physical and mental health struggles, which are reflected in the education realm.

 

Scholars Livia Hazer and Gustaf Gredebäck (2023) identify three distinct stages of mental distress related to the status of refugees[xxiv]. The first one is premigration  which it relates to living through war, thus, not having basic conditions met and the disintegration of family ties[xxv] (Idem, 3). The second one, perimigration, arises from the trauma of displacement[xxvi] (Ibid.). Displacement is associated with social and structural trauma(i.e. prolonged bureaucratic migration processes and multiple relocations) interpersonal trauma(i.e. exploitation and discrimination). Moreover, children suffer from the interruption of education. Palestinian refugee kids displaced to the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan attend schools provided by UNRWA. In the West Bank, such educative institutions represent a “safe haven” for kids where they study and play with their friends. However, UNRWA-run schools do not provide shelter from Israeli violence when the two are close[xxvii] (UNRWA, 2023).  For example, pupils attending the school in Jalazone Palestine refugee camp do not feel safe due to its proximity to an illegal Israeli settlement- people living in the refugee camp, including children, have been detained and injured with tear gas and plastic bullets[xxviii] (UNRWA, 2021). Another problem lies in overcrowding, as UNRWA schools are small and resources are insufficient to provide good-quality education to all kids needing it[xxix] (Ibid.). Moreover, refugee kids and their families tackle additional problems regarding finance and documentation which prevent them from accessing higher studies[xxx] (United Nations). This point is particularly burning for Palestinian refugees as the absence of recognized statehood, and, consequently, citizenship rights, complicate the matter. Palestinians do not receive protection from international law when residing outside UNRWA’s operating zones.  As a result, they live through a liminality, compromised of legal ambiguity and invisibility, which affect education, their right to get an education, and the challenges they face while trying to get an education[xxxi] (Ahmed, 2023).  Since October 2023, 100 000 Gazans have escaped to Egypt and reside there without holding the “refugee status”. Thus, they are excluded from receiving humanitarian aid and legal documents and permits necessary for public school enrollment[xxxii] (Guergues, 2024). It is important to note that fleeing, as of November 2024, is incredibly hard and expensive, as the main border crossings are closed, and the few private companies assisting with trespassing demand high sums of money. Students awarded scholarships stumbled in bureaucratic, time-consuming mazes which made evacuation and pursuing education abroad impossible[xxxiii] (Ramadan, 2024).

 

Conclusion

Experts have accused Israel of committing a “scholasticide,” eliminating academic buildings, students, and teachers. The intense and violent raids attack Gazan schooling on two fronts: on the supply side and the demand side. Israeli forces have permanently destroyed most educational buildings, including universities. Furthermore, chronic warfare has tremendous consequences for the survivors, both physical and mental. Emotional distress and psychological disorders impact the daily and future lives of Gazan kids, including their education prospects. Belligerent attacks unleash a vicious cycle of destruction that manifests through the discontinuity of education impacting the next generations. While education appears to be an ancillary problem in a region, where people are struggling to secure water, medicine, and daily nutrition, it remains critical.  The topic cannot be erased from international discourses as its neglect will exacerbate Gaza’s long-term challenges and hinder the prospects of its people.

 

Reference List

 

A day in the life of a Palestine refugee student in the West Bank. (2021). UNRWA. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/features/day-life-palestine-refugee-student-west-bank

 

Al Jazeera. (2024). Gaza toll could exceed 186,000, Lancet study says. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/7/8/gaza-toll-could-exceed-186000-lancet-study-says

 

Britannica. (2024). 1948 Arab-Israeli War | Summary, Outcome, Casualties, & Timeline | Britannica.  https://www.britannica.com/event/1948-Arab-Israeli-War

 

Britannica. (2018). Balfour Declaration | History & Impact. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Balfour-Declaration

 

Catani, C. (2018). Mental health of children living in war zones: a risk and protection perspective. World Psychiatry, 17(1), 104–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20496

 

Child Rights Committee statement on children in Gaza. (2024). OHCHR. https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2024/02/child-rights-committee-statement-children-gaza

Duncan, M. J., Patte, K. A., & Leatherdale, S. T. (2021). Mental Health Associations with Academic Performance and Education Behaviors in Canadian Secondary School Students. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 36(4), 082957352199731. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573521997311

 

Farajallah, I. (2022). Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry, 4(2), 112. https://doi.org/10.4103/wsp.wsp_26_22

 

Frounfelker, R. (2019). Living through war: Mental health of children and youth in conflict-affected areas. International Review of the Red Cross. https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/living-through-war-mental-health-children-and-youth-conflict-affected-areas#footnote7_4a64345

 

Ghazy Randa. (2022). After 15 years of blockade, four out of five children in Gaza say they are living with depression, grief and fear. Save the Children International. https://www.savethechildren.net/news/after-15-years-blockade-four-out-five-children-gaza-say-they-are-living-depression-grief-and

 

Guergues, Azza. (2024). How Are Palestinians in Gaza Fleeing to Egypt? Foreign Policy; Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/08/15/gaza-palestinians-fleeing-egypt-refugees-rafah-crossing-israel-war/

 

Hazer, L., & Gredebäck, G. (2023). The effects of war, displacement, and trauma on child development. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02438-8

 

Inger, I., Sherif, Y., & Egeland, J. (2024). Education under attack in Gaza, with nearly 90% of school buildings damaged or destroyed. Save the Children International. https://www.savethechildren.net/blog/education-under-attack-gaza-nearly-90-school-buildings-damaged-or-destroyed

 

Investing In The Future Through Education of Palestine Refugees: UNRWA Marks International Day of Education. (2023). UNRWA. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/news-releases/investing-future-through-education-palestine-refugees

 

Ahmed, Nasim. (2023). Trapped in a legal black hole, Palestinian refugees in Turkiye dream of going home. Middle East Monitor. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230830-trapped-in-a-legal-black-hole-palestinian-refugees-in-turkiye-dream-of-going-home/

 

Ottoman Palestine. (2016, March 2). The Institute for Palestine Studies. https://digitalprojects.palestine-studies.org/resources/special-focus/ottoman-palestine

 

Ramadan, A. (2024, November 22). In Gaza dreams die, but hope remains. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2024/11/22/in-gaza-dreams-die-but-hope-remains

 

Schöler, N., Gal, G., Wissow, L. S., & Akihiro Seita. (2024). Stress and Trauma Symptoms in Young Palestine Refugee Children Following the May 2021 Escalation in Gaza. JAACAP Open. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaacop.2024.06.003

 

Stack, L., & Shbair, B. (2024). With Schools in Ruins, Education in Gaza Will Be Hobbled for Years. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/06/world/middleeast/gaza-schools-damaged-destroyed.html

 

Unicef. (2016). Violent Conflict and Educational Inequality Literature Review FHI 360 Education Policy and Data Center. https://www.epdc.org/sites/default/files/documents/Conflict%20and%20Inequality%20Literature%20Review%20FINAL.pdf

 

United Nations. Refugee education in crisis: More than half of the world’s school-age refugee children do not get an education. United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/academic-impact/refugee-education-crisis-more-half-worlds-school-age-refugee-children-do-not-get

 

Vilaplana-Pérez, A., Sidorchuk, A., Pérez-Vigil, A., Brander, G., Isoumura, K., Hesselmark, E., Sevilla-Cermeño, L., Valdimarsdóttir, U. A., Song, H., Jangmo, A., Kuja-Halkola, R., D’Onofrio, B. M., Larsson, H., Garcia-Soriano, G., Mataix-Cols, D., & Fernández de la Cruz, L. (2020). Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Educational Achievement in Sweden. JAMA Network Open, 3(12), e2028477. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.28477

 

War Impacts Child Development, Alters DNA – Neuroscience News. (2024). Neuroscience News. https://neurosciencenews.com/neurodevelopment-genetics-war-28091/

 

 

[i] Lister Tim, Dahman Ibrahim, and Tamar Michaelis. Around 70% of deaths in Gaza are women and children, says UN. 2024. https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/09/middleeast/un-warnings-gaza-humanitarian-conditions-intl/index.html

 

[ii] Gaza toll could exceed 186,000, Lancet study says. 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/7/8/gaza-toll-could-exceed-186000-lancet-study-says

 

[iii] Farajallah, Iman. Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry. 2022

 

[iv] Child Rights Committee statement on children in Gaza. 2024. https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2024/02/child-rights-committee-statement-children-gaza

 

[v] Ottoman Palestine. Digital Projects-Institute for Palestine Studies. https://digitalprojects.palestine-studies.org/resources/special-focus/ottoman-palestine

 

[vi] Balfour Declaration. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Balfour-Declaration

 

[vii] 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/1948-Arab-Israeli-War

 

[viii] Farajallah, Iman. Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry. 2022:113. https://www.academia.edu/85404245/Continuous_Traumatic_Stress_in_Palestine_The_Psychological_Effects_of_the_Occupation_and_Chronic_Warfare_on_Palestinian_Children

 

 

[ix] Catani, Claudia. Mental health of children living in war zones: a risk and protection perspective. World Psychiatry 17, 1: 104-105. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5775132/

 

[x] Frounfelker, Rochelle L. et al. Living through war: Mental health of children and youth in conflict-affected areas. International Review of the Red Cross. 2019. https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/living-through-war-mental-health-children-and-youth-conflict-affected-areas#footnote7_4a64345

 

[xi] Idem.

 

[xii] War Impacts Child Development, Alters DNA. Neuroscience News. 2024. https://neurosciencenews.com/neurodevelopment-genetics-war-28091/

 

[xiii] Farajallah, Iman. Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry. 2022: 114. https://www.academia.edu/85404245/Continuous_Traumatic_Stress_in_Palestine_The_Psychological_Effects_of_the_Occupation_and_Chronic_Warfare_on_Palestinian_Children

 

[xiv] Gazhy, Randa. After 15 years of blockade, four out of five children in Gaza say they are living with depression, grief and fear. Save the Children. 2022.

 

[xv] Schöler, Nina,  Gilad Gal, Lawrence S. Wissow, and Akihiro Seit. Stress and Trauma Symptoms in Young Palestine Refugee Children Following the May 2021 Escalation in Gaza. JAACAP Open. 2024: 3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaacop.2024.06.003

 

[xvi] Duncan, Markus, Karen Patte A., & Scott Leatherdale. Mental Health Associations with Academic Performance and Education Behaviors in Canadian Secondary School Students. Canadian Journal of School Psychology 36, 4: 335-357. 2021.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573521997311

 

[xvii] Vilaplana-Pérez, Alba et al. Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Educational Achievement in Sweden. JAMA Network Open 23, 2. 2020. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33289847/

 

[xviii] Ibid.

 

[xix] Ibid.

 

[xx] Violent Conflict and Educational Inequality. UNICEF. 2016. https://www.epdc.org/sites/default/files/documents/Conflict%20and%20Inequality%20Literature%20Review%20FINAL.pdf

[xxi] Ibid.

 

[xxii] Ashing Inger, Yasmine Sherif, and Jan Egeland. Education under attack in Gaza, with nearly 90% of school buildings damaged or destroyed. Save the Children. 2024. https://www.savethechildren.net/blog/education-under-attack-gaza-nearly-90-school-buildings-damaged-or-destroyed

 

[xxiii] Stack, Liam and Bilal Shbair. With Schools in Ruins, Education in Gaza Will Be Hobbled for Years. New York Times. 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/06/world/middleeast/gaza-schools-damaged-destroyed.html

 

[xxiv] Hazer, Livia and Gustaf Gredebäck. The effects of war, displacement, and trauma on child development. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 10, 909. 2023.

 

[xxv] Idem., 3.

 

[xxvi] Ibid.

 

[xxvii] Investing In The Future Through Education of Palestine Refugees: UNRWA Marks International Day of Education.

UNRWA. 2023. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/news-releases/investing-future-through-education-palestine-refugees

 

[xxviii] A day in the life of a Palestine refugee student in the West Bank. UNRWA. 2021. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/features/day-life-palestine-refugee-student-west-bank

 

[xxix] Ibid.

 

[xxx] Refugee education in crisis: More than half of the world’s school-age refugee children do not get an education. United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/academic-impact/refugee-education-crisis-more-half-worlds-school-age-refugee-children-do-not-get

 

[xxxi] Ahmed, Nasim. Trapped in a legal black hole, Palestinian refugees in Turkiye dream of going home. Middle East Monitor. 2023. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230830-trapped-in-a-legal-black-hole-palestinian-refugees-in-turkiye-dream-of-going-home/

 

[xxxii] Guergues, Azza. How 100,000 Palestinians Are Surviving in Egypt Without Refugee Status. Foreign Policy. 2024. https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/08/15/gaza-palestinians-fleeing-egypt-refugees-rafah-crossing-israel-war/

.

[xxxiii] Ramadan, Abdallah. In Gaza dreams die, but hope remains. Al Jazeera. 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2024/11/22/in-gaza-dreams-die-but-hope-remains

 

 

Mental Distress and Systematic Destruction: Gazan Schooling during Belligerent Invasions

Mental Distress and Systematic Destruction: Gazan Schooling during Belligerent Invasions

By Valeria Romano

Introduction

As the Palestinian genocide unfolds in front of our eyes, Palestinian people, scholars and journalists around the world reflect on the future of the nation. Israeli troops destroyed civilians’ houses, healthcare buildings, cultural centers, and educational institutions. In October 2024, Palestinian schools- which are now operating as bomb shelters- suffered from 64 raids[i] (Lister, Ibrahim, and Michaelis, 2024). Israeli troops killed more than 38,000 Palestinians since October 7th and the number is most likely higher, given the corpses still under the rubble and the indirectly death causes specifically, people killed by the harsh living conditions created by the attacks[ii] (Al Jazeera, 2024). Of the verified deaths, 44% are school-aged kids, which adds to the 2199 kids killed by Israeli raids between 2000 and 2021[iii](Farajallah, 2022, p. 113). Moreover, at least 17,000 Palestinian kids are living separated from their parents, and more than ten children a day lose their limbs[iv] (Child Rights Committee, 2024). Israeli authorities attack the future of Palestine by aiming at its schools -the core of education, thus of societies and cultures- and its children, who are forced to live through constant warfare. Experiencing war-related traumas highly impacts children’s prospects. This paper will delve into the consequences of chronic warfare on children’s mental health and a country’s academic infrastructure.

The article will start by presenting a brief historical background on the Occupied Palestinian Territories; then, it will unveil the mental health effects of experiencing constant conflict-related stress, connecting it to the case of Gaza -and education. Both Palestinians living in Gaza and Palestinian refugees will be focused upon

 

Background

Palestine, officially the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT) is a country in the Levantine. It encompasses the Gaza Strip and the West Bank.

From the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages, various populations came and conquered the region, including Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and Mamluks, just to name a few. In 1516, Palestine became part of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans ruled the region until the end of the First World War and Palestinian cities became pivotal commercial sites[v] (The Institute For Palestine Studies, 2016). As the Ottoman Empire was defeated in the war and its land split, the British got a mandate from the League of Nations to establish their administration in the Palestinian region. Such mandate was made on the promise of “the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish  people.”[vi] (Britannica, 2018). The start of British rule correlates with the tensing up of the relationships between different religious groups that during the Ottoman Empire lived together peacefully. The hostilities peaked in 1947, when Palestine was divided into two States: Israel, for Jewish people, and Palestine, for Arab natives. Despite the premises, the partition did not fulfill the peaceful prospects, as already in 1948 Israel started experiencing disputes with nearby territories. The Nakba ended with various armistices, de-facto Israeli borders, and Palestinian displacement, as 400, or more, Palestinian-Arab towns were destroyed[vii] (Britannica, 2024). Since then, people in the OPT experienced one raid after another, and rebelled against them: the Six Days War (1967), the First Intifada (1987–1993), the Al-Aqsa Intifada (2000–2005), the Operation Cast Lead (December 2008 –January 2009), the Operation Pillar of Defense (November 2012), the Operation Protective Edge (July–August 2014), the Unity Intifada (May 2021)[viii] (Farajallah, 2022, p. 113 ).

 

War Trauma and Gazan kids

In recent years, scholars have carried out several research projects on the effects of chronic warfare on the mental state of young people. Such consequences depend on various factors: the violence one witnessed, the duration of the conflict, and the socio-cultural meaning of [mental] health. The most common psychological disorder affecting young kids is PTSD – Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder-[ix] (Catani, 2018, pp. 104-105), whereas, in later childhood, externalization of behavioral symptoms is more common, such as conduct defiant disorder[x] (Frounfelker et al, 2019) . Other consequences include sleep problems, panic attacks, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and depression[xi] (idem.). Moreover, war-related trauma also manifests in family and peer interactions, and stigma, especially in post-conflict and post-migration settings. Experiencing chronic warfare causes epigenetic changes leading to potential long-term health and development alterations as living through armed conflict activates unique DNA methylation changes[xii] (Neuroscience News, 2024).

In the case of Palestinian children, researchers have examined the mental aftermath of the Second Intifada and found an increase in aggressiveness of parents towards their children, and vice versa, more frequent nightmares in school-aged kids, and worse grades[xiii] (Farajallah, 2022, p. 114). Children in Gaza witnessed at least three war-related traumatic events and 95% percent of them live in fear, constant grief- and depression, high emotional distress, and more than half have contemplated suicide[xiv] (Ghazy, 2022). The disorders mentioned above relate to impairments in daily functions[xv] (Schöler et al., 2024).

 

Chronic warfare is a multidimensional situation that deteriorates one’s mental health. Studies carried out in Western countries argue for a correlation between the disintegration of one’s psychological sphere and academic achievements. Lower depression and positive psychological well-being relate to better educational performance[xvi] (Duncan et al., 2021). Suffering from PSTD lowers the chances of completing educational milestones, including finishing compulsory education[xvii] ((Vilaplana-Pérez et al., 2020). Children with higher social skills are more likely to graduate[xviii] (Idem.).  Moreover, externalizing symptoms correlates to lower academic achievements, and having attention disorders predicts lower reading development and mathematical skills

Chronic warfare also impacts the structure and the “behind-the-scenes” of schooling. In traditional literature, conflict means fewer financial resources are meant for education improvements and that families cannot afford education-related expenses[xx] (UNICEF, 2016). Teachers may flee, and students stop attending lessons as schools become unsafe sites[xxi] (Idem.). However, these issues do not fully represent the situation in Gaza where nearly 90% of educational buildings have been destroyed or permanently damaged[xxii] (Inger et al., 2024). The attacks continue and Gazan students experience gaps and discontinuity in their education as schools closed in October 2023. Some volunteers have organized basic lessons in tents, but school-aged children are more worried about their next meal but spending their time selling objects in the street and searching for water with their parents[xxiii] (Stack & Shbair, 2024).

 

Palestinian refugees and education

The ongoing Israeli attacks on Palestinian territories have forced people to leave their homes, flee to other countries, and become refugees. This precarious status of becoming refugees leads to physical and mental health struggles, which are reflected in the education realm.

Scholars Livia Hazer and Gustaf Gredebäck (2023) identify three distinct stages of mental distress related to the status of refugees[xxiv]. The first one is premigration  which it relates to living through war, thus, not having basic conditions met and the disintegration of family ties[xxv] (Idem, 3). The second one, perimigration, arises from the trauma of displacement[xxvi] (Ibid.). Displacement is associated with social and structural trauma(i.e. prolonged bureaucratic migration processes and multiple relocations) interpersonal trauma(i.e. exploitation and discrimination). Moreover, children suffer from the interruption of education. Palestinian refugee kids displaced to the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan attend schools provided by UNRWA. In the West Bank, such educative institutions represent a “safe haven” for kids where they study and play with their friends. However, UNRWA-run schools do not provide shelter from Israeli violence when the two are close[xxvii] (UNRWA, 2023).  For example, pupils attending the school in Jalazone Palestine refugee camp do not feel safe due to its proximity to an illegal Israeli settlement- people living in the refugee camp, including children, have been detained and injured with tear gas and plastic bullets[xxviii] (UNRWA, 2021). Another problem lies in overcrowding, as UNRWA schools are small and resources are insufficient to provide good-quality education to all kids needing it[xxix] (Ibid.). Moreover, refugee kids and their families tackle additional problems regarding finance and documentation which prevent them from accessing higher studies[xxx] (United Nations). This point is particularly burning for Palestinian refugees as the absence of recognized statehood, and, consequently, citizenship rights, complicate the matter. Palestinians do not receive protection from international law when residing outside UNRWA’s operating zones.  As a result, they live through a liminality, compromised of legal ambiguity and invisibility, which affect education, their right to get an education, and the challenges they face while trying to get an education[xxxi] (Ahmed, 2023).  Since October 2023, 100 000 Gazans have escaped to Egypt and reside there without holding the “refugee status”. Thus, they are excluded from receiving humanitarian aid and legal documents and permits necessary for public school enrollment[xxxii] (Guergues, 2024). It is important to note that fleeing, as of November 2024, is incredibly hard and expensive, as the main border crossings are closed, and the few private companies assisting with trespassing demand high sums of money. Students awarded scholarships stumbled in bureaucratic, time-consuming mazes which made evacuation and pursuing education abroad impossible[xxxiii] (Ramadan, 2024).

 

Conclusion

Experts have accused Israel of committing a “scholasticide,” eliminating academic buildings, students, and teachers. The intense and violent raids attack Gazan schooling on two fronts: on the supply side and the demand side. Israeli forces have permanently destroyed most educational buildings, including universities. Furthermore, chronic warfare has tremendous consequences for the survivors, both physical and mental. Emotional distress and psychological disorders impact the daily and future lives of Gazan kids, including their education prospects. Belligerent attacks unleash a vicious cycle of destruction that manifests through the discontinuity of education impacting the next generations. While education appears to be an ancillary problem in a region, where people are struggling to secure water, medicine, and daily nutrition, it remains critical.  The topic cannot be erased from international discourses as its neglect will exacerbate Gaza’s long-term challenges and hinder the prospects of its people.

 

Reference List

 

A day in the life of a Palestine refugee student in the West Bank. (2021). UNRWA. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/features/day-life-palestine-refugee-student-west-bank

 

Al Jazeera. (2024). Gaza toll could exceed 186,000, Lancet study says. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/7/8/gaza-toll-could-exceed-186000-lancet-study-says

 

Britannica. (2024). 1948 Arab-Israeli War | Summary, Outcome, Casualties, & Timeline | Britannica.  https://www.britannica.com/event/1948-Arab-Israeli-War

 

Britannica. (2018). Balfour Declaration | History & Impact. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Balfour-Declaration

 

Catani, C. (2018). Mental health of children living in war zones: a risk and protection perspective. World Psychiatry, 17(1), 104–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20496

 

Child Rights Committee statement on children in Gaza. (2024). OHCHR. https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2024/02/child-rights-committee-statement-children-gaza

Duncan, M. J., Patte, K. A., & Leatherdale, S. T. (2021). Mental Health Associations with Academic Performance and Education Behaviors in Canadian Secondary School Students. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 36(4), 082957352199731. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573521997311

 

Farajallah, I. (2022). Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry, 4(2), 112. https://doi.org/10.4103/wsp.wsp_26_22

 

Frounfelker, R. (2019). Living through war: Mental health of children and youth in conflict-affected areas. International Review of the Red Cross. https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/living-through-war-mental-health-children-and-youth-conflict-affected-areas#footnote7_4a64345

 

Ghazy Randa. (2022). After 15 years of blockade, four out of five children in Gaza say they are living with depression, grief and fear. Save the Children International. https://www.savethechildren.net/news/after-15-years-blockade-four-out-five-children-gaza-say-they-are-living-depression-grief-and

 

Guergues, Azza. (2024). How Are Palestinians in Gaza Fleeing to Egypt? Foreign Policy; Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/08/15/gaza-palestinians-fleeing-egypt-refugees-rafah-crossing-israel-war/

 

Hazer, L., & Gredebäck, G. (2023). The effects of war, displacement, and trauma on child development. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02438-8

 

Inger, I., Sherif, Y., & Egeland, J. (2024). Education under attack in Gaza, with nearly 90% of school buildings damaged or destroyed. Save the Children International. https://www.savethechildren.net/blog/education-under-attack-gaza-nearly-90-school-buildings-damaged-or-destroyed

 

Investing In The Future Through Education of Palestine Refugees: UNRWA Marks International Day of Education. (2023). UNRWA. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/news-releases/investing-future-through-education-palestine-refugees

 

Ahmed, Nasim. (2023). Trapped in a legal black hole, Palestinian refugees in Turkiye dream of going home. Middle East Monitor. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230830-trapped-in-a-legal-black-hole-palestinian-refugees-in-turkiye-dream-of-going-home/

 

Ottoman Palestine. (2016, March 2). The Institute for Palestine Studies. https://digitalprojects.palestine-studies.org/resources/special-focus/ottoman-palestine

 

Ramadan, A. (2024, November 22). In Gaza dreams die, but hope remains. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2024/11/22/in-gaza-dreams-die-but-hope-remains

 

Schöler, N., Gal, G., Wissow, L. S., & Akihiro Seita. (2024). Stress and Trauma Symptoms in Young Palestine Refugee Children Following the May 2021 Escalation in Gaza. JAACAP Open. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaacop.2024.06.003

 

Stack, L., & Shbair, B. (2024). With Schools in Ruins, Education in Gaza Will Be Hobbled for Years. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/06/world/middleeast/gaza-schools-damaged-destroyed.html

 

Unicef. (2016). Violent Conflict and Educational Inequality Literature Review FHI 360 Education Policy and Data Center. https://www.epdc.org/sites/default/files/documents/Conflict%20and%20Inequality%20Literature%20Review%20FINAL.pdf

 

United Nations. Refugee education in crisis: More than half of the world’s school-age refugee children do not get an education. United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/academic-impact/refugee-education-crisis-more-half-worlds-school-age-refugee-children-do-not-get

 

Vilaplana-Pérez, A., Sidorchuk, A., Pérez-Vigil, A., Brander, G., Isoumura, K., Hesselmark, E., Sevilla-Cermeño, L., Valdimarsdóttir, U. A., Song, H., Jangmo, A., Kuja-Halkola, R., D’Onofrio, B. M., Larsson, H., Garcia-Soriano, G., Mataix-Cols, D., & Fernández de la Cruz, L. (2020). Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Educational Achievement in Sweden. JAMA Network Open, 3(12), e2028477. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.28477

 

War Impacts Child Development, Alters DNA – Neuroscience News. (2024). Neuroscience News. https://neurosciencenews.com/neurodevelopment-genetics-war-28091/

 

 

 

 

 

[i] Lister Tim, Dahman Ibrahim, and Tamar Michaelis. Around 70% of deaths in Gaza are women and children, says UN. 2024. https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/09/middleeast/un-warnings-gaza-humanitarian-conditions-intl/index.html

 

[ii] Gaza toll could exceed 186,000, Lancet study says. 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/7/8/gaza-toll-could-exceed-186000-lancet-study-says

 

[iii] Farajallah, Iman. Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry. 2022

 

[iv] Child Rights Committee statement on children in Gaza. 2024. https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2024/02/child-rights-committee-statement-children-gaza

 

[v] Ottoman Palestine. Digital Projects-Institute for Palestine Studies. https://digitalprojects.palestine-studies.org/resources/special-focus/ottoman-palestine

 

[vi] Balfour Declaration. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Balfour-Declaration

 

[vii] 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/1948-Arab-Israeli-War

 

[viii] Farajallah, Iman. Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry. 2022:113. https://www.academia.edu/85404245/Continuous_Traumatic_Stress_in_Palestine_The_Psychological_Effects_of_the_Occupation_and_Chronic_Warfare_on_Palestinian_Children

 

 

[ix] Catani, Claudia. Mental health of children living in war zones: a risk and protection perspective. World Psychiatry 17, 1: 104-105. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5775132/

 

[x] Frounfelker, Rochelle L. et al. Living through war: Mental health of children and youth in conflict-affected areas. International Review of the Red Cross. 2019. https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/living-through-war-mental-health-children-and-youth-conflict-affected-areas#footnote7_4a64345

 

[xi] Idem.

 

[xii] War Impacts Child Development, Alters DNA. Neuroscience News. 2024. https://neurosciencenews.com/neurodevelopment-genetics-war-28091/

 

[xiii] Farajallah, Iman. Continuous Traumatic Stress in Palestine: The Psychological Effects of the Occupation and Chronic Warfare on Palestinian Children. World Social Psychiatry. 2022: 114. https://www.academia.edu/85404245/Continuous_Traumatic_Stress_in_Palestine_The_Psychological_Effects_of_the_Occupation_and_Chronic_Warfare_on_Palestinian_Children

 

[xiv] Gazhy, Randa. After 15 years of blockade, four out of five children in Gaza say they are living with depression, grief and fear. Save the Children. 2022.

 

[xv] Schöler, Nina,  Gilad Gal, Lawrence S. Wissow, and Akihiro Seit. Stress and Trauma Symptoms in Young Palestine Refugee Children Following the May 2021 Escalation in Gaza. JAACAP Open. 2024: 3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaacop.2024.06.003

 

[xvi] Duncan, Markus, Karen Patte A., & Scott Leatherdale. Mental Health Associations with Academic Performance and Education Behaviors in Canadian Secondary School Students. Canadian Journal of School Psychology 36, 4: 335-357. 2021.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573521997311

 

[xvii] Vilaplana-Pérez, Alba et al. Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Educational Achievement in Sweden. JAMA Network Open 23, 2. 2020. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33289847/

 

[xviii] Ibid.

 

[xix] Ibid.

 

[xx] Violent Conflict and Educational Inequality. UNICEF. 2016. https://www.epdc.org/sites/default/files/documents/Conflict%20and%20Inequality%20Literature%20Review%20FINAL.pdf

[xxi] Ibid.

 

[xxii] Ashing Inger, Yasmine Sherif, and Jan Egeland. Education under attack in Gaza, with nearly 90% of school buildings damaged or destroyed. Save the Children. 2024. https://www.savethechildren.net/blog/education-under-attack-gaza-nearly-90-school-buildings-damaged-or-destroyed

 

[xxiii] Stack, Liam and Bilal Shbair. With Schools in Ruins, Education in Gaza Will Be Hobbled for Years. New York Times. 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/06/world/middleeast/gaza-schools-damaged-destroyed.html

 

[xxiv] Hazer, Livia and Gustaf Gredebäck. The effects of war, displacement, and trauma on child development. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 10, 909. 2023.

 

[xxv] Idem., 3.

 

[xxvi] Ibid.

 

[xxvii] Investing In The Future Through Education of Palestine Refugees: UNRWA Marks International Day of Education.

UNRWA. 2023. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/news-releases/investing-future-through-education-palestine-refugees

 

[xxviii] A day in the life of a Palestine refugee student in the West Bank. UNRWA. 2021. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/features/day-life-palestine-refugee-student-west-bank

 

[xxix] Ibid.

 

[xxx] Refugee education in crisis: More than half of the world’s school-age refugee children do not get an education. United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/academic-impact/refugee-education-crisis-more-half-worlds-school-age-refugee-children-do-not-get

 

[xxxi] Ahmed, Nasim. Trapped in a legal black hole, Palestinian refugees in Turkiye dream of going home. Middle East Monitor. 2023. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230830-trapped-in-a-legal-black-hole-palestinian-refugees-in-turkiye-dream-of-going-home/

 

[xxxii] Guergues, Azza. How 100,000 Palestinians Are Surviving in Egypt Without Refugee Status. Foreign Policy. 2024. https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/08/15/gaza-palestinians-fleeing-egypt-refugees-rafah-crossing-israel-war/

.

[xxxiii] Ramadan, Abdallah. In Gaza dreams die, but hope remains. Al Jazeera. 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2024/11/22/in-gaza-dreams-die-but-hope-remains

 

 

[CG1]in order to avoid using “paper” again

 

[CG2]I understand what you mean but for clarity you should clearly state who is them. Or maybe you want to say they rebelled against the raids so then add an “against” them

 

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33289847/

 

[CG4]I would rather rephrase this as:  including their educational prospects. Would leave out “as well”

International week of solidarity with the peoples of Non-Self-Governing territories 25-31 May

Every year from May 25 to May 31, the world observes the International Week of Solidarity with the Peoples of Non-Self-Governing Territories, designed to highlight the ongoing challenges faced by 17 territories that have yet to attain full self-government. Established by the UN General Assembly in resolution A/RES/54/91, this week serves as a vital reminder of international organizations’ commitment to self-determination and decolonization processes. Non-Self-Governing Territories are defined under Chapter XI of the UN Charter as regions “whose people have not yet attained a full measure of self-government.i
Non-Self-Governing Territories often lack in the realm of education. The quality of and access to schooling have already been addressed by the UN in the 50s: education “…the should be designed to familiarize the inhabitants with and train them in the use of the tools of economic, social and political progress, with a view to the attainment of a full measure of self-government.”ii  Current educational frameworks remain influenced by their administering authority, reflecting histories and priorities lacking cultural sensibility, denying the promotion of local social progress and the development of local civic consciousness connected to autochthonous histories and beliefsiii.
Broken Chalk acknowledges that true self-determination and decolonization go beyond economic and political measures, and they demand education as their foundational brick, as education has the power of fostering local identity and critical thinking. We at Broken Chalk highlight the need to shift academic curricula towards decolonization to celebrate, transmit, and teach Indigenous histories.
Featured photo from Unsplash by Tim Marshall
REFERENCES
i Nations, United. n.d. “International Week of Non-Self-Governing Territories.” United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/observances/non-self-governing-week.

 

ii General, UN. 2025. “Educational Conditions in Non-Self-Governing Territories.” United Nations Digital Library System. May 23, 2025. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/211636?v=pdf.

 

iii General, UN. 2025. “Educational Conditions in Non-Self-Governing Territories.” United Nations Digital Library System. May 23, 2025. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/211636?v=pdf.

Silenced Erasure of the Kurdish Language in Turkey’s Education System

Introduction 

Education is a basic human right. It is a pivotal tool for both the individual and the collective. It provides a base for self-fulfilment, self-development, and a brighter future; moreover, it offers [marginalized] communities a medium to preserve their culture, thus language, practices, art, literature, and history. Schooling has become a means of socialization, cultural transmission, and identity formation. Given such functions, however, education may become a propagandistic tool, a medium for an end far away from ethical values. For instance, it may transmit unity messages through a revision of history, like in the case of some Cyprian schoolbooks i Furthermore, education reproduces economic, cultural, and social inequalities; it is a primary mechanism of the network of power used by the State to punish, discipline, and legitimize. This paper focuses on such aspects of Turkey’s education system. In particular, the essay deals with Kurdish linguistic discrimination in Turkish schooling through specific legislative measures. Kurdish is an Indo-European language, related to Persian, and belongs to a different linguistic family tree from Turkish. There are two primary dialects of Kurdish: Sorani and Kurmanj ii. It is the fortieth most spoken language worldwide and the first in Kurdistan, a geo-cultural region divided between four countries ii. 

Methodology 

The essay will start by explaining the history of the Kurdish people. It will mention the first settlements in the area, how Kurds lived under the Ottoman Empire, and the changes that First World War brought. Then, the paper will explore the life of the Kurdish population in Turkey post-Lausanne, and highlight the discriminatory legislative measures taken to ensure internal cohesion. Finally, the essay will explain the consequences of such “linguicide”iii on education.  

The paper is based on academic manuscripts, national newspaper articles, a qualitative interview, and blogs.  

This essay focuses exclusively on discrimination faced by the Kurdish population; however, it is important to mark how other Muslim minorities are negatively impacted by such nationalistic policies.  

 

A Look At The Past 

Kurdistan has the nickname of “invisible nationiv:” it is there, it exists, but it doesn’t have any tangible geo-political borders. This section will focus on such invisibility. 

Kurdish people have lived in Central Anatolia since the Middle Ages when the first tribe arrived in 1184v.Then, three centuries later, they founded the first large settlement named Kürtler, in proximity to modern-day Ankaravi When the Ottomans reached the region, they formed an alliance with Kurdish groups and the latter worked as local officials and informators during the Battle of Chaldiran. Due to their great involvement in belligerent actions, the Ottoman Empire rewarded the tribes. The Kurds benefitted from fiscal exceptions, and the recognition of a semi-autonomous status, entailing virtual independence and the maintenance of the Kurdish tribal organizative systemviiOttomans and Kurds’ relationship changed in the 1830s with the start of a centralization process, resulting in the weakening of the Kurdish semi-autonomous status and tribal system.  

 

During the First World War, Kurds’ dissatisfaction with the Empire resulted in a series of uprisings. The relationship with the Ottomans deteriorated as the Kurdish people wanted more autonomy and aimed at the creation of a Kurdish state. They fought the Ottomans encouraged by the British and the Russians who shared the idea of Kurdish independence. When the war ended, the Kurds should have received an independent state, according to the Treaty of Sevrès which promoted self-determination and autonomy for nationalities under the Ottomans. However, the Kurdish population was split into 4 States: Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkeyviii. 

Kurds in Turkey 

The Treaty of Lausanne officialised the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and the partition of the Kurdish population. The new Turkish leader, Mustafa Atatürk promised to treat the Kurdish minority equal to the Turkish population. However, the Treaty itself recognized only non-Muslim minorities in Turkish territories: Greeks, Jews, and Armenians ix; as a result, the Kurdish population was left out, without any concrete protectionsxand, despite the promises,  the Turkish President promoted a process of assimilation and homogenization which entailed territorial reforms and the removal of the “Kurds race”xi. The government aimed at canceling any trace of multi-ethnicityxii as it represented a threat to internal unity. Inhabitants of the Dersim region refused the new policies and did not pay taxes; thus, it became Turkey’s “…most significant interior problem…”xiii.The government levied new laws to contain the threat. They involved displacement: Dersim kids were forced to attend schools outside their native region and Dersim authorities were free to resettle the residentsxiv. Moreover, in the Eastern part of the country, Turkish troops led a massacre that killed over 4000 civiliansxv.  

 

Kurdish: a forbidden language 

“New-born” Turkey made cultural homogenization and assimilation its goal. Everybody must be of Turkish heritage, and, in case this is not plausible, everybody must act like a Turk, marry a Turk, and speak like a Turk. In 1924, the Turkish government banned the Kurdish language, Kurdish dictionaries, and the words “Kurdistan” and “Kurds”xvi. The government also kept the schooling rate low in Kurdish regions in fear of future independence ideas and national consciousnessxvii. Turkish nation-building went through processes of forced standardization, cultural assimilation, and consequent domestic and international legislative measures to legitimize the subordination of non-Turkish languages. For instance, domestically, the Constitution proclaims Turkish as the mother tongue and the official language of the State; internationally, Turkey expressed doubts regarding Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights which states that individuals belonging to minorities should not be refused the right to speak their language, perform cultural activities, and profess their religionxviii. Furthermore, it had some reservations regarding articles of the UN Convention Right of Child proclaiming that kids from minority groups have the right to preserve their cultural identityxix. Finally, the country refused to sign the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages which states that minorities have the right to learn and speak their first languagexx. 

 

Linguistic homogenization aims to awaken a sense of nation, identity, and community within people living in the same State. Such a strategy is implemented through education; thus, it is no surprise that Turkey follows a one-language instruction policy, prohibiting public schools from teaching Kurdish as a native language. As a matter of fact, Article forty-two of the Constitution states that “no language other than Turkish may be taught as a mother tongue to Turkish citizens at any institutions of training or education.” Moreover, in 1980, following the military coup, the government banned the usage of Kurdish in public and private life. Despite the prohibitions, teachers unofficially and secretively still used Kurdish in madrasah institutionsxxi. The ban on domestic usage would be lifted in 1991xxii. Turkey implemented positive education reforms in the following decades, attentive to minority rightsxxiii. For instance, the first Kurdish language class is organized at the University in Mardin. Moreover, fourth-grade-and-up schools offered Kurdish lessons as electivesxxiv.  

The status of the Kurdish language changed after the 2016 military coup when Kurdish media programs were terminated, and Kurdish cultural institutions, and NGOs were shut down. Furthermore, the government closed private schools teaching in Kurdish and language departments of universitiesxxv. Such legislative and governmental adversity towards the Kurdish language led to popular aggressions. In 2019, an elder couple was expelled from an hospital after they spoke Kurdish to each other; in 2020, several seasonal workers were killed because of “kurdophobia” a couple of years prior, an elementary school kid was beaten up for speaking his language with their family on the phone xxvi. 

 

Education, Employment and Language 

The consideration of the Kurdish language held by the Turkish State “…as a divisive, existential threat rather than an instrument of unity…”xxvii has terrible effects on the realm of education. 

Kurds do not have the right to learn their native language as a subject or employ it as a medium to study other educational topics. In some Eastern parts of Turkey, like Diyarbakir, parents oppose the governmental policies and encourage their children to “academically” learn Kurdish. For instance, a human-right activist from that area sent his child to a Zarokistan preschool xxviii. Moreover, in the Eastern and Southeastern parts of the country, where the majority of the Kurdish population resides, people still speak the vernacular at home. Researchers identified several issues connected to the erasure of the Kurdish language in schoolsxxix. Firstly, a linguistic -and legislative- barrier separated Turkish-speaking teachers and Kurdish-speaking pupils. They do not understand each other, forcing the former to stay quiet in class as they could not express themselves in the correct languagexxx. Secondly, Kurdish students usually learn how to read and write and develop literary skills, and comprehension later than their counterparts xxxi. They are generally made to fail and, thus, repeat the grade. Those who have to repeat several years tend to develop a negative view of schooling and drop outxxxii. According to Balkan and Cilasunxxxiii, Kurds have a lower rate of finishing high school studies than their Turkish counterparts, and even less probabilities of achieving a bachelor’s degree or higher education. Quitting school before completion leads to unemployment and poverty, hence “uneducated” people are employed as “low-skilled,” unspecialized workers. My interviewee identified two different job paths for Kurdish and Turkish people. The latter tend to work in more mentally draining fields; whereas, the former are employed in physical fields such as construction, and agriculture. Another disadvantage that Kurdish people face is their place of living as location correlates with employment: people living in urban areas experience better labour market outcomes. Turkish urban areas tend to be populated by Turks, whereas the Kurdish population tend to reside in rural locationsxxxiv. Education and location come together and created disadvantageous circumstances for the Kurdish people in the workplace Kurdish people tend to be unemployment longer than their Turkish counterparts xxxv.  

 

The subordination of the Kurdish language leads to catastrophic consequences in the educational dimension. As a matter of fact, such linguistic -and cultural- discrimination measures create a hostile learning environment, and the school becomes an oppression site, instead of a liberation force. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights proclaims that “everyone has the right to education” and the Turkish Constitution declares that “no one shall be deprived of the right of education;” however, various factors interfere between Kurdish students and the achievement of education. The Turkish nation-building project stand on “othering” processes, thus on dividing citizens with Turkish heritage from citizens belonging to ethnic minorities by implementing strategies to standardize the former and forcing the latter to adjust their language and culture to the finely crafted norm. Ethnic minorities, including Kurdish people, hence, become an obstacle to a strong national sentiment, and education becomes a weapon, another mechanism through which dissolving multi-ethnicity by reproducing the language everybody must speak and the culture everybody must adhere to. Schooling, however, should not be an aggressive weapon, but rather an emancipation tool for the individual and the community. Kurdish people do not benefit from education and do not have the same access to higher studies as Turkish people. It is important to implement policies that will positively impact marginalized groups’ schooling rates which will, eventually, lead to a betterment in future opportunities.  

 

Conclusion 

The essay delved into linguistic discrimination towards Kurdish people in scholastic environments. Language represents a pivotal tool for creating internal cohesion and a shared identity, and history, thus, the emphasis of Turkish authorities on the realization of linguistic homologation within the national borders. However, the legislative measures taken to achieve such a goal negatively impact learning-age children. As a matter of fact, despite the prohibitions, families still prefer to communicate in Kurdish and kids do not understand Turkish when starting the first grade; as a result, a student with a Kurdish background will face more obstacles than their Turkish counterparts, leading them to develop a negative view of education and quitting school.  

It is pivotal to tackle this issue, internationally and domestically, to ensure that 1) Kurdish-heritage kids have the same opportunities as Turkish-heritage kids and 2) no erasure of the Kurdish language is carried out. 

REFERENCES

i Eriksen, Thomas Hylland. Small Places, Large Issues: An Introduction to Social and Cultural Anthropology. London: Plutopress, (1995) 2015. 

ii Hassanpour, Amir, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, and Michael Chyet. The Non-Education of Kurds: A Kurdish Perspective. International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift Für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale de L’Education 42 (4): 368. 1996 

iii Idem, 369. 

iv Torelli, Stefano. Kurdistan La Nazione Invisibile. Milano: Mondadori, 2017. 

v Cowen, Katie. The Kurdish Dilemma in Turkey. Washington Kurdish Institute. 2023. https://dckurd.org/2023/01/26/the-kurdish-dilemma-in-turkey-2/. 

 vi Ibid. 

vii McDowall, David. A Modern History of the Kurds. London: I.B. Tauris. 1997.  

viii Ali, Othman. The Kurds and the Lausanne Peace Negotiations, 1922-23. Middle Eastern Studies 33 (3): 521–34. 1997. 

https://www.jstor.org/stable/4283891 

ix LoBianco, Joseph. The Cultural Dimension in the Educational Process (The case of Turkey). Maat for Peace, Development and Human Rights. 2016.  https://www.jstor.org/stable/3444908.

xi Cowen, Katie. The Kurdish Dilemma in Turkey. Washington Kurdish Institute. 2023. https://dckurd.org/2023/01/26/the-kurdish-dilemma-in-turkey-2/. 

xii Çevik, Esra. KURDISH LANGUAGE RIGHTS and MOTHER TONGUE in EDUCATION. Civil Rights Defenders, 2. 2019. 

https://crd.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/EUTH-Turkey-Kurdish-Language-Rights-Mother-Tongue-in-Education-Esra-Cevik.pdf. 

xiii ibid.  

 xiv Ibid.  

xv Cowen, Katie. The Kurdish Dilemma in Turkey. Washington Kurdish Institute. 2023. https://dckurd.org/2023/01/26/the-kurdish-dilemma-in-turkey-2/. 

xvi Ibid.  

xvii Çevik, Esra. KURDISH LANGUAGE RIGHTS and MOTHER TONGUE in EDUCATION. Civil Rights Defenders, 2. 2019. 

https://crd.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/EUTH-Turkey-Kurdish-Language-Rights-Mother-Tongue-in-Education-Esra-Cevik.pdf. 

xviii LoBianco, Joseph. The Cultural Dimension in the Educational Process (The case of Turkey). Maat for Peace, Development and Human Rights. 2016. 

xix Kaczorowski, Karol. Kurdish Language and Multicultural Education in Turkey. Ez Mafê Xwe Dizanim! I Know My Rights! – Manual on Human Rights Education and the Right to Mother Tongue Education, 57. 2016. 

https://www.academia.edu/48963803/Kurdish_language_and_multicultural_education_in_Turkey. 

xx Ibid.  

xxi Ibid.  

xxii Hassanpour, Amir, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, and Michael Chyet. The Non-Education of Kurds: A Kurdish Perspective. International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift Für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale de L’Education 42 (4): 371. 1996. 

https://www.jstor.org/stable/3444908. 

xxiii Aydin, Hasan. Status of Education and Minorities Rights in Turkey. Georgetown Journal of International Affairs. 2020. 

https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/12/20/status-of-education-and-minorities-rights-in-turkey/ 

xxiv Ibid.  

xxv Ibid.  

xxvi Editor. Suppression of Kurdish language in Turkey is reflection of general intolerance towards Kurds: community leader. 2021. https://stockholmcf.org/suppression-of-kurdish-language-in-turkey-is-reflection-of-general-intolerance-towards-kurds-community-leader/ 

xxviii Letsch, Constanze. In Turkey, Repression of the Kurdish Language Is Back, with No End in Sight. The Nation. 2017.  

https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/in-turkey-repression-of-the-kurdish-language-is-back-with-no-end-in-sight/ 

xxix Çevik, Esra. KURDISH LANGUAGE RIGHTS and MOTHER TONGUE in EDUCATION. Civil Rights Defenders, 4.2019. 

https://crd.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/EUTH-Turkey-Kurdish-Language-Rights-Mother-Tongue-in-Education-Esra-Cevik.pdf. 

xxx ibid.  

xxxi Ibid.  

xxxii Ibid.  

xxxiii Balkan, Binnur and Seyit Mumin Cilasun. ETHNIC DISCRIMINATION IN THE TURKISH LABOR MARKET: EVIDENCE FROM SURVEY AND FIELD DATA. 2018.  

xxxiv Ibid. 

 xxxv Ibid.  

 

Photo by ‪Salah Darwish on Unsplash

World Press Freedom Day

On the 3rd of May, the world reunites to reflect on the importance of press freedom. International organizations, including Broken Chalk, urge media officers and regular citizens to remember journalists who lost their lives, got arrested, or are forced to live under fear because they chose to follow the truth. Moreover, we want the day to act as a reminder of the dangers of restraints and censorship. In 2024, 361 journalists were arrestedi. However, threats to freedom of the press are not confined to arrest and detention; they include harassment, intimidation, monitoring of communications, and economic, and political pressure.

Freedom of speech does not impact only journalists and media personnel, but everyone else partaking in information seeking. It affects how global citizens seek, speak, and receive sources.

At Broken Chalk, we recognize how freedom of the press impacts academic freedom and viceversa. Both are pedestals for societies and communities where knowledge is shared and pursued without restrictions, fear, and limits. Scholars and journalists must be able to explore, critique, examine, and propagate topics and articles without restraints. Academic and journalistic voices being silenced or lowered entail a loss in reasoning, innovation, and democracy.

 

Broken Chalk wants to express its solidarity with US news outlets, journalists, scholars, and students who are experiencing damaging consequences due to their stances which question President Trump’s notions. Broken Chalk also conveys its solidarity to all those news outlets, journalists, scholars, and students who live and work in countries all around the world where their work puts them in danger and whose names and acts of bravery are often overlooked.

Photo by Larry Alger on Unsplash

23rd international day of English and Spanish language

On the 23rd of April, the celebrations of two languages are happening: it is, indeed, the international day of the English and Spanish languages. The occurrence is a reminder of the history of the two vernaculars and an encouragement to multilingualism. Broken Chalk wishes to use the day to reflect on bilingual education.

 

Bilingual contexts are becoming the standard instead of remaining a rarity. Education should encompass the ongoing changes influencing what people see as the norm. According to UNESCO, multilingual schooling is essential to achieve inclusivity in education, especially in countries where the dominant -colonial- language exists in relation to local vernaculars. Multilingual education aids both students with a refugee background and students who speak minority languages at home. Bilingual strategies in schooling increase student involvement in the classroom, raise retention rates, and push community and family participationi.

 

Adopting multilingual education policies helps address the worldwide learning crisis. Moreover, on an individual-intellectual level, bilingual students develop higher cognitive skills and hold a higher degree of literacy than their monolingual peersii.

Multilingual education opens the path to preserve indigenous languages and protect linguistic diversityiii.

 

Broken Chalk wishes to reiterate the benefits of multilingual strategies in education. Preserving local languages aids social cohesion, improves community engagement, and protects the culture around it. Developing bilingual approaches helps pupils in their future endeveours, professional and individual.

 

Featured image from Flickr by Elliot Brown

International Mothers Earth Day press release

On April 22, the world comes together to celebrate International Mother Earth Day, recognising our shared responsibility to protect the planet and live in harmony with nature. For Broken Chalk, this day serves as a crucial reminder that access to education is essential to building environmentally conscious, resilient, and sustainable communities.

The right to quality education, enshrined in Article 1 of Protocol No. 2 to the European Convention on Human Rights and Goal 4 of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, extends far beyond the classroom. It equips individuals with the knowledge, critical thinking, and civic awareness needed to face the realities of climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation. Without inclusive and equitable access to education especially in vulnerable and marginalised communities meaningful and effective climate action remains out of reach.

From understanding the science of climate change to engaging in environmental policymaking, Broken Chalk believes that education is one of the most powerful tools in empowering individuals to contribute to a more sustainable future especially in an era where misinformation undermines genuine climate action. Yet today, millions of individuals, most notably children, around the world are denied the access to basic and quality education due to conflict, poverty, political repression, and increasingly, climate-induced disasters.

Rising sea levels, wildfires, droughts, and displacement not only destroy homes but also disrupt schooling threatening the futures of entire generations, more so with marginalised communities that have fewer resources. Such communities on the frontlines of the climate crisis are often those most excluded from education systems. This inequality perpetuates a vicious cycle of disempowerment and environmental vulnerability. Environmental justice and educational justice are deeply interconnected.

Due to this, Broken Chalk endorses global efforts made that integrate climate education and environmental literacy into all levels of learning. We advocate for the inclusion of sustainability principles in national curricula, calling for urgent action to safeguard educational institutions and academic freedom in the face of environmental and political crises.

As we mark International Mother Earth Day, Broken Chalk urges governments, institutions, and civil society to recognise that protecting the planet requires protecting education. Ensuring that every child can access a quality education that includes climate awareness is not just a policy choice it is a moral imperative. Climate education allows individuals to better comprehend and utilise effective ways to reduce emissions than many other single solutions. For this reason, to disarm individuals with the learning opportunities to better protect their environment and the world around them is to strip away their ability to develop personal connections to climate change solutions and change their behaviours accordingly throughout their lives.

 

Photo by Ijaz Rafi on Unsplash

International Girls in ICT Day

On April 22nd, Broken Chalk joins the global community to reflect on International Girls in ICT Day. This annual event represents an opportunity for organisations, policymakers, education personnel, and families to consider why we need such a day and how we can bridge the gap between boys’ and girls’ futures in tech careers.

The world is becoming increasingly digital as new technologies transform how we live, work, think, and connect. More and more academic fields welcome digital innovations and many careers become tech-related. However, girls are still under-represented and under considered in the ICT world. Many young women are hindered from reaching their full potential and interest in digital fields by cultural and social obstacles such as stereotypes, a lack of role models, and a lack of resources.

The digital gender gap refers to gender biases in accessing technological products and careers. It also relates to gaps in digital skills, participation in STEM fields, and tech sector presencei. Globally, in 2022, Internet usage among men stood at 62%, while among women, it was 57%ii. Moreover, women from low- and middle-income countries are 15 percent less likely to use mobile internet compared to meniii. In higher education, women are under-represented underrepresented in STEM programs as they make up only 35% of student bodiesiv. The World Bank has financed and strategized gender-intentional initiatives to bridge the digital divide. Such programs include working together with tech firms to ensure equal access and use, while incorporating online safety precautions; creating digital skills training camps specifically aimed at women in isolated communities; and investigating financing alternatives for affordable mobile devices aimed at aiding women with limited financial resourcesv.

Broken Chalk acknowledges the imperative necessity to bridge the digital gender gap and join the World Bank and other international organizations to raise awareness about the phenomenon. We believe in the power and influence of education in ensuring that every girl has the opportunity to gain digital skills, build confidence in tech sectors, and develop an interest in STEM areas. However, education does not exist in a vacuum, and we call on communities and policy-makers to create more spaces for young girls in ICT. Providing girls with ICT knowledge goes beyond career pathways; it’s about equipping future leaders, problem-solvers, and changemakers for a digital world.

 

Image by Firmbee from Pixabay

Михаил Зборовский: как смартфоны изменили требования к ИТ-продуктам

Распространение смартфонов и планшетов коренным образом изменило принципы цифрового взаимодействия между компаниями и клиентами. Если раньше мобильная версия сайта считалась дополнением, то сегодня она — первоочередная необходимость. Компании, которые не адаптируются к мобильной реальности, рискуют терять клиентов с первых секунд взаимодействия. Михаил Зборовский, эксперт по стратегическому развитию ИТ-продуктов, считает:

“Мы живём в эпоху, где пользователь ожидает моментального отклика и полного комфорта — в любом месте и в любое время.”

Почему мобильность стала решающим фактором

Растущее количество мобильных устройств стало катализатором для глубоких изменений в цифровой инфраструктуре бизнеса. Успешные платформы пересобирают свои процессы и продукты с нуля, исходя из сценариев мобильного взаимодействия. Михаил Зборовский подчёркивает: “Для современного пользователя первые 5 секунд — решающие. Он определяет, останется ли на платформе или закроет её. Поэтому бизнесу стоит учитывать следующие ключевые моменты”

  • Клиенты предпочитают оформлять заказы и подписки прямо с телефона.
  • Решения о покупке часто принимаются в движении — во время поездок, ожидания, перерывов.
  • Уровень лояльности зависит от того, насколько легко и быстро работает мобильный продукт.

Бизнес должен учитывать эти изменения и перестраивать ИТ-процессы с прицелом на мобильного пользователя. Компании, игнорирующие эти требования, теряют доверие и упускают рынок.

Как это влияет на развитие ИТ-продуктов

Мобильность уже давно перестала быть опцией — она стала основой цифровой стратегии любого бизнеса. Как подчёркивает Михаил Зборовский, мобильная эра — это время, когда выигрывают те, кто умеют строить сервисы, заточенные под реальный ритм жизни клиента. Массовое использование смартфонов требует следовать ряду обязательных правил. 

  • Максимальная производительность на любом устройстве.
  • Минимизация размера страниц и времени загрузки.
  • Простая, лаконичная структура с чёткими call-to-action.

Более того, приложения должны быть не только быстрыми, но и безопасными — киберугрозы в мобильной среде растут с каждым годом. Это вынуждает компании внедрять многоуровневую защиту и использовать поведенческую аналитику.