Physical and Psychological violence in Latin America, how does it hinder the quality of education.

Latin America is a diverse region in the American continent. The area consists of 33 countries where populations speak Latin languages. Latin America is known for its rich culture, hospitality, and joyful spirit for life (Redmond and Juliao 2022) i. However, like any other region in the world, Latin America comes with its own challenges particularly widespread violence. According to the Global Peace Index 2024, it is one of the most violent places in the world (World Population Review 2024)ii. Unfortunately, students cannot escape this violence either and sometimes they become victims of it in educational institutions.  This article will examine the relevance and impact of school violence on the quality of education in Latin America and discuss educational policies that can mitigate this issue. 

 

Bullying, a prominent issue in schools of Latin America 

When it comes to school violence, one of the most prominent issues globally is bullying, and Latin America is no exception. The definition of bullying is not standardized. Generally, it is understood as repeated behaviour with the intention of hurting someone (Government Digital Service 2011)iii. The behaviour may involve psychological and physical violence. For instance, psychological bullying might include name-calling, discriminatory jokes, and spreading rumours (Dimensions 2022)iv. Whilst physical bullying can involve vandalizing lockers, hitting, and shoving (Fraserhealth 2022)v. For example, the World Bank documented the case of one Latin American student who was the victim of physical abuse, insults, and name-calling (World Bank Group 2016)vi. This case perfectly illustrates what bullying is not an isolated incident. Despite the inconsistency in the data due to different methods of assessing and defining bullying (Vivolo-Kantor et al. 2014)vii, the studies still show a high prevalence of bullying across the region. 

 

In some statistics, the bullying rates in countries like Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina can be higher than 60% (World Bank Group 2016)viii. The issue was also highlighted in the PISA study.Primarily, Costa Rica faces the most significant challenge. The country ranked first in bullying among students globally, with 44% of students reporting being victims of bullying at some point in their lives. Colombia ranks 11th in the study and has a bullying prevalence rate of 23%. Brazil, Peru, and Chile are tied for 16th on the list with a rate of 20% (Tico Times 2024)ix. Another 2018 study summarizing different reports showed that the mean prevalence rate in the region was 29.3% (Herrera-López, Romera, and Ortega-Ruiz 2018)x. It should be noted that the issue has become systemic and extends beyond schools. For instance, 32.28% of university students have also encountered bullying in their universities (Franco and Puglia 2023)xi . 

Impact of Bullying on Students’s learning outcomes 

What is the impact of bullying on students’ learning outcomes? In general, bullying can cause fear and anxiety in victims (McLean Hospital 2024)xii. The anxiety may restrict students’ cognitive flexibility, such as adaptability to new situations or open-mindedness toward learning (RocketEd 2023)xiii. Victims also might have difficulty forming relationships with peers and teachers (McLean Hospital 2024)xiv. This is an issue because positive relationships with teachers and peers can increase students’ motivation to learn and be engaged (Yu et al. 2023)xv (Li, Bergin, and Olsen 2022)xvi . Another negative impact is that bullying decreases students’ participation in school-related activities (McLean Hospital 2024)xvii and sometimes even school attendance (Dunne et al. 2010)xviii. Most importantly, the bullying causes low educational attainment (Shaath et al. 2021)xix 

 

 Latin America is largely affected by educational attainment issues because of bullying. A study from 2016, which examined the impact of bullying in 15 Latin American countries, confirmed that bullying lowers educational achievements. For example, bullied students score 10 points less in maths and reading compared to non-bullied students. Also, the study reconfirmed that bullied students have difficulties in socialization and acceptance within schools. (Delprato, Akyeampong, and Dunne 2017)xx 

Era of digitalisation, Cyberbullying 

Furthermore, due to the era of digitalisation, a new form of bullying has emerged called cyberbullying. Students are not safe online  and may become victims of harassment via social networks, online games, and so on (UNICEF 2022). The main problem here is that cyberbullying does not stop at school and follows a child everywhere. Additionally, it is harder to notice cyberbullying compared to traditional bullying, which raises new challenges for educators. (PACER’s National Bullying Prevention Center 2019)xxi. 

 

The impact of cyberbullying on education is the same as traditional bullying and includes lower academic performance and attendance (Agile Education Marketing 2024)xxii. At the same time, Latin America experiences the highest amount of cyberbullying on social networks in the world (with a rate of 70%). Therefore, it is a challenge for Latin American governments to provide safe learning environments to boost the quality of education. 

 

Sexual violence, another burden for Latin American schools. 

In addition to bullying, Latin America struggles with other kinds of physical violence, such as sexual violence and gang violence. For instance, girls from Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, and the Dominican Republic have been victims of sexual violence and sexual blackmail . There is a chance of girls being raped in the bathrooms, which sometimes do not even have doors. There is also a precedent of other children spying on girls while they are in bathrooms. Moreover, teachers simply ignore this problem and do not attempt to engage with students. This is an issue because, according to the UNESCO Education for All Global Monitoring Report Team and the United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI) policy paper: “widespread gender-based violence in and around schools poses serious obstacles to the achievement of quality, inclusive, and equitable education.”. (BBC NEWS MUNDO 2016)xxiii. 

 

Taking into considering three types of violence: cyberbullying, traditional bullying, and sexual violence, it is evident that Latin America is facing an epidemic of violence.  The effects of violence cause mental health problems in students and creates an unsafe learning environment. Therefore, this situation hinders the quality of education and leads to lower educational achievements across the continent. 

How to address the issue of school violence 

The governments of Latin American countries are responsible for providing solutions to the situation to ensure that the quality of education does not decrease. The question is how governments can address this issue. First, it is necessary to identify the root causes of the school violence. For example, one of the reasons why there are bullies in schools can be their family situation. Students who grow up in families with violence or who lack emotional support can be more prone to aggressive behaviour (Nata Asatiani and Mzia Tsereteli 2022).xxiv Another reason why bullying exists in schools could be that students are intolerant of diversity and do not value it. For example, in the case of Brazil, almost a fifth of the students stated that body appearance and facial appearance were causes of bullying. Sexual or ethnic minorities were also targeted because they were different from others (Malta et al. 2022).xxv  

 

Nonetheless, the learning environment may be a key aspect of this discussion. Students should be viewed not only as creators of the environment but also as products of it. Bullying is not an independent variable; it results from the context in which individuals live. For students who usually spend a great deal of time in schools, this context is largely shaped by the school culture. School culture designs the learning environment by setting ideals, values, and norms. In schools where teachers do not pay sufficient attention to incidents of violence or maintain unhealthy relationships with students, we can assume that the school culture is weak as the school lacks ideals and norms. This lack of a strong school culture is a catalyst for bullying. (Nata Asatiani and Mzia Tsereteli 2022).xxvi 

 

Therefore, the aim of educational policies by the government and schools should be to build a positive school culture. This will foster a positive and safe learning environment. Creating a culture that stands against bullying can vary across educational levels. For example, in elementary school, the focus might be on celebrating students’ differences and conflict resolution (Grover 2022)xxvii. This might address the above-mentioned problem of students’ intolerance toward diversity. Teachers also play an important role in a strong culture; they should empower, care for, and believe in students (FranklinCovey Education 2014) xxviii. Consequently, they should give support to students in need of it, including victims of bullying and family violence who turn out to be bullies. Moreover, strong school culture means strong norms regarding bullying. One way this can be achieved is to draft a clear plan on how bullying is not tolerated and how it is handled at school (Schrepf 2024)xxix. Additionally, the development of social and emotional skills such as empathy, collaboration, and emotional regulation can be integrated into the curriculum (FranklinCovey Education 2014) xxx. As a result, schools will show that they have strong values when it comes to respect for each other. 

Chile’s anti-bullying policy a way forward. 

An example of a policy aimed at strengthening school culture is Chile’s legislation against bullying. Not only does it provide a legal definition of bullying, but more importantly, it obligates schools to have school councils. These school councils are responsible for promoting coexistence in schools and preventing any type of aggression, harassment, or physical or psychological violence toward students. Additionally, if any member of the school community is aware of a bullying case, they must report it, creating a sense of a norm. However, the situation in Chile is still not perfect, as in 2023 the country reported more than 4000 cases of bullying. It is important to give more attention to school violence so that more educators take responsibility, more families can be informed about the harms of bullying, and more schools can try to achieve a positive learning climate. (24horas 2024)xxxi 

 

In conclusion, it is evident that school violence, involving both physical and psychological forms, hinders the provision of high-quality education in Latin America. Bullying, cyberbullying, sexual harassment are just few examples of school violence in the region, but they all negatively affect learning outcomes of students by creating fear and anxiety in students. To solve this issue, it is necessary for governments in collaboration with schools to create a positive learning climate where students are empowered and strong values, ideas and norms prevail. The policy created by Chile is way forward, but more attention and resources are needed to eliminate bullying in schools. It is important for the region to aim for safer educational spaces so it can deliver the international human right of quality education.  

REFERENCES

i Redmond, Brian, and David Juliao. 2022. “Latin America | Facts, Culture & Religion.” Study.com. 2022. https://study.com/learn/lesson/latin-american-culture-traditions.html. 

ii World Population Review. 2024. “Most Violent Countries 2024.” Worldpopulationreview.com. 2024. https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/most-violent-countries. 

iii Government Digital Service. 2011. “Bullying at School.” GOV.UK. October 3, 2011. https://www.gov.uk/bullying-at-school/bullying-a-definition. 

v Fraserhealth. 2022. “Bullying at School.” Fraserhealth.ca. 2022. https://www.fraserhealth.ca/health-topics-a-to-z/school-health/mental-wellness-for-children/bullying-at-school. 

vi World Bank Group. 2016. “Latin America: Are Children Safe at School?” World Bank. World Bank Group. August 30, 2016. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/01/26/latin-america-are-kids-safe-at-school. 

vii Vivolo-Kantor, Alana M, Brandi N Martell, Kristin M Holland, and Ruth Westby. 2014. “A Systematic Review and Content Analysis of Bullying and Cyber-Bullying Measurement Strategies.” Aggression and Violent Behavior 19 (4): 423–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2014.06.008. 

viii World Bank Group. 2016. “Latin America: Are Children Safe at School?” World Bank. World Bank Group. August 30, 2016. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/01/26/latin-america-are-kids-safe-at-school. 

ix Tico Times. 2024. “Costa Rica Tops Global List for Bullying among Students: PISA Report.” The Tico Times | Costa Rica News | Travel | Real Estate. September 7, 2024. https://ticotimes.net/2024/09/06/costa-rica-tops-global-list-for-bullying-among-students-pisa-report. 

x Herrera-López, Mauricio, Eva Romera, and Rosario Ortega-Ruiz. 2018. “BULLYING Y CYBERBULLYING EN LATINOAMÉRICA.” Revista Mexicana de Investigación Educativa RMIE 23: 14056666. https://www.scielo.org.mx/pdf/rmie/v23n76/1405-6666-rmie-23-76-125.pdf.  

xi Franco, Silvia, and Maximiliano Puglia. 2023. “Violencias En Estudiantes Universitarios de América Latina. Prevalencias Y Reflexiones Sobre Las Comunidades Universitarias Que Construimos.” InterCambios. Dilemas Y Transiciones de La Educación Superior 10: 97–112. 

xii McLean Hospital. 2024. “The Mental Health Impact of Bullying on Kids and Teens | McLean Hospital.” Mcleanhospital.org. September 26, 2024. https://www.mcleanhospital.org/essential/bullying-kids-teens. 

xiii RocketEd. 2023. “How Does Anxiety Affect Learning?” RocketEd. June 24, 2023. https://www.rocketed.co.uk/blog/how-does-anxiety-affect-learning#:~:text=Anxiety%20can%20limit%20a%20child’s,abilities%20and%20stifling%20their%20creativity. 

xiv McLean Hospital. 2024. “The Mental Health Impact of Bullying on Kids and Teens | McLean Hospital.” Mcleanhospital.org. September 26, 2024. https://www.mcleanhospital.org/essential/bullying-kids-teens. 

xv Yu, Xiaodan, Xufei Wang, Haoyue Zheng, Xin Zhen, Min Shao, Haitao Wang, and Xinlin Zhou. 2023. “Academic Achievement Is More Closely Associated with Student-Peer Relationships than with Student-Parent Relationships or Student-Teacher Relationships.” Frontiers in Psychology 14 (February). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1012701. 

xvi Li, Xintong, Christi Bergin, and Amanda A Olsen. 2022. “Positive Teacher-Student Relationships May Lead to Better Teaching.” Learning and Instruction 80 (February): 101581–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101581. 

xvii McLean Hospital. 2024. “The Mental Health Impact of Bullying on Kids and Teens | McLean Hospital.” Mcleanhospital.org. September 26, 2024. https://www.mcleanhospital.org/essential/bullying-kids-teens. 

xviii Dunne, Máiréad, Cynthia Bosumtwi-Sam, Ricardo Sabates, and Andrew Owusu. 2010. “Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity Bullying and School Attendance: A Case Study of Senior High School Students in Ghana.” https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED512120.pdf. 

xix  Shaath, Muna , Hiba Sleem, Yaman Sulayeh, Abdel-Ghani Saifi, Hiba Ishtayah, and Odeh Hamayel. 2021. “School Bullying from Multiple Perspectives: ‘a Qualitative Study.’” Education in the Knowledge Society (EKS) 22 (September): e23953–53. https://doi.org/10.14201/eks.23953. 

xx Delprato, Marcos, Kwame Akyeampong, and Máiréad Dunne. 2017. “The Impact of Bullying on Students’ Learning in Latin America: A Matching Approach for 15 Countries.” International Journal of Educational Development 52 (January): 37–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.10.002. 

xxi PACER’s National Bullying Prevention Center. 2019. “Cyberbullying Definition.” Pacer.org. 2019. https://www.pacer.org/bullying/info/cyberbullying/#:~:text=Unique%20Characteristics%20of%20Cyberbullying&text=Most%20students%20have%20access%20to,home%20or%20in%20the%20community. 

xxii Agile Education Marketing. 2024. “How Does Cyberbullying Affect Mental Health in Schools? .” Agile Education Marketing. February 20, 2024. https://agile-ed.com/resources/how-does-cyberbullying-affect-mental-health-in-schools/#:~:text=The%20effects%20of%20online%20bullying,academic%20performance%20and%20social%20interactions.. 

xxiii BBC NEWS MUNDO. 2016. “Por Qué Hay Niñas En Nicaragua Que Temen Ir al Baño En La Escuela – BBC News Mundo.” BBC News Mundo. April 2016. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/2016/04/160318_nicaragua_ninas_escuela_banos_miedo_acoso_lv. 

xxiv Nata Asatiani, and Mzia Tsereteli. 2022. “THE PSYCHOLOGICAL NATURE and FACTORS of BULLYING,” July. https://doi.org/10.52340/gpj.2022.07.11. 

xxv Malta, Deborah Carvalho, Abadio de, Elton Junio, Flávia Carvalho, Santos Moutinho, and Marta Angelica. 2022. “Bullying among Brazilian Adolescents: Evidence from the National Survey of School Health, Brazil, 2015 and 2019.” Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem 30 (spe). https://doi.org/10.1590/1518-8345.6278.3678. 

xxvi Nata Asatiani, and Mzia Tsereteli. 2022. “THE PSYCHOLOGICAL NATURE and FACTORS of BULLYING,” July. https://doi.org/10.52340/gpj.2022.07.11. 

xxvii Grover, Nakul. 2022. “School Culture and Bullying.” Harvard Graduate School of Education. May 19, 2022. https://www.gse.harvard.edu/ideas/usable-knowledge/22/05/school-culture-and-bullying. 

xxviii FranklinCovey Education. 2014. “Prevent Bullying with a Positive School Culture: 3 Tips.” Leaderinme.org. 2014. https://www.leaderinme.org/blog/prevent-bullying/. 

xxix Schrepf, Emily. 2024. “7 Best Practices to Stop Bullying and Create a Safe Space Where All Students Can Thrive.” Scanlan Center for School Mental Health. April 2024. https://scsmh.education.uiowa.edu/2024/04/01/safety-acceptance-community-building-a-bully-free-school-culture/. 

xxx FranklinCovey Education. 2014. “Prevent Bullying with a Positive School Culture: 3 Tips.” Leaderinme.org. 2014. https://www.leaderinme.org/blog/prevent-bullying/. 

xxxi 24horas. 2024. “Bullying Escolar: Registran Segunda Cifra Más Alta En 10 Años.” 24horas.cl. 24horas. 2024. https://www.24horas.cl/data/bullying-escolar-denuncias-maltrato-estudiantes-cifra-decada. 

 

Photo by Feliphe Schiarolli on Unsplash

The impact of arms transfers on human rights

Written by Faith Galgalo and Maria Samantha Orozco

This report is a Submission to the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.

Image by Robert Couse-Baker on PxHere.

For the comprehensive evaluation of the situation on practices of states regarding access to information on arms transfer, “Broken Chalk” has laid down seven points of focus on the questions presented for this call that focus on concrete examples carried out by countries of the mentioned regions.

I. The impact of arms transfers, including the diversion of arms and unregulated or illicit arms transfer on the enjoyment of Human Rights: Related to the implications of arms transfer and specific examples of its effects on Africa and Latin America.

II. Access to information: A key to preventing violations of human rights derived from licit or illicit arms transfer in the Global South

III. Laws on access to information, country example: Regulations in Guatemala related to arms transfer, restriction and availability of information

IV. State Proactive Disclosure Practices and the situation in which the tracing is available: Examples of a state with proactive disclosure of information related to arms regulation and analysis of its limitations.

V. Obligations related to access to information or transparency apply to private business entities, wholly or partially State-owned enterprises, including those carrying out arms transfers: The establishment of good practices by private entities and obligations related to arms transfer to minimise harmful effects on human rights.

VI. Right of access to information on arms transfers of parties to legal proceedings possible exceptions related to the admission of evidence: Examples of countries with limits on access to information regarding evidential purposes.

VII. Transboundary nature of arms transfers affects or can affect the enjoyment of the right of access to information in preventing, mitigating and responding to the negative impact on human rights relating to such transfers: The limits and scope of protection of access to information about arms transfer regarding the applicability of different regulations, and protection laws.

You can download the full report in this link.

11A_The_impact_of_arms_transfers_on_human_rights

Educational challenges in Paraguay: socioeconomic inequality as key to educational progress

Written by Agnes Amaral

Introduction

Paraguay is a South American country that contains a diverse amount of ethnical and racial population. In number, more than half of the country is mestizo, 30% of white people, and almost 3% indigenous. These numbers are important in a way to create policies that embrace all people[1]. Another important factor about Paraguay is the role religion plays in this society. According to Latinobarometro data[2], almost 90% of the Paraguayan population is Catholic. This means religion plays a very strong role in people’s decisions and ethical behavior. Cultural decisions based on religion tend to define distinct roles between genders and races. The population is also divided between urban and rural, with almost 40% of the rural and farm population. This generates a diversity of actions that accentuate gender inequality and prejudice linked to the fate of certain groups in that society.

Marked by a sequence of authoritarian governments and complex development processes, Paraguay has immense social inequalities that mirror education. These factors are relevant for analyzing the educational situation and the challenges faced in the country. When asked about fairness in access to education, 47.5% state an “unfair” access while 32% mention a “very unfair” access[3]. This leads us to ask: why is the access to education in Paraguay considered very unfair by the majority of the population?

Digital education efforts in Paraguay – UNICEF

Social Inequality and Covid-19 Pandemic

The first big problem that impacts education is inequality. Data from 2020 reveals that the discussion about the problems in the country is related to poverty, financial problems, and educational challenges[4]. This is something that affects not only Paraguay, but all of Latin America and the Caribbean. For instance, during the Covid-19 pandemic, there is what they call an “educational blackout”[5].

Due to the closing of the schools, education took place online. The problem in this situation is that access to the Internet is limited by equipment, good network quality, and digital skills. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) data report that, among students under 18 years old, about 60% had no Internet access in Paraguay. This became a challenge to education during the two years of remote education. However, considering the connected reality in which we live, this can still be considered a palpable problem for the country and the region.

Unequal access to education affects education rates long before the pandemic. In 2019, for example, when checking the performance of elementary school students, the result is that Paraguayan students had lower levels of performance in mathematics. About the low progress, the Director of the Regional Bureau for Education in Latin America and the Caribbean (OREALAC) of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Claudia Uribe mentions the need to take urgent governmental measures to achieve the 2030 Agenda[6].  This school exclusion affects some groups more sharply. Students from indigenous peoples, afro-descendants, and migrants encounter disadvantages.

Indigenous Girls & Women

The creation of the country was based on the exclusion of indigenous peoples. For this reason, it is possible to note the social impacts suffered by these groups to this day. It is a large ethnic diversity. The right to be involved, political participation, and access to education are essential to mitigate these inequalities. There are constitutional advances in this sense, such as the 1992 Constitution, which recognizes and guarantees the rights of indigenous peoples in Paraguay:

ARTICLE 66 – EDUCATION AND ASSISTANCE

The State shall respect the cultural peculiarities of the indigenous peoples, especially with regard to formal education. Attention shall also be paid to their defense against demographic regression, depredation of their habitat, environmental pollution, economic exploitation, and cultural alienation.  (Artículos de la Constitución Nacional)[7]

However, the reality is indigenous people dealing with exclusion and poverty. This affects the educational indicators of the indigenous population, which worsen when we consider the reality of the indigenous female population. In Paraguay, free and mandatory schooling lasts nine years (basic education)[8]. Considering this, Indigenous men stay in education for a little less than five years, while Indigenous women about 3.5 years. A big difference in the amount of education guaranteed. Data from the Permanent Continuous Household Survey (EPHC)[9] shows three main reasons for these school leavings.

The first is for family reasons. About 20% of indigenous women dropped out of their studies because they had too many domestic activities to do. The second reason involves economic aspects. In this case, more than 25% of the indigenous men dropped out of school because they needed to get a job. And the third reason is the lack of sufficient educational institutions. Especially an education in which their culture and their views are considered, as mentioned in Constitutional Article[10]. The way of life of many indigenous communities is still based on hunting and gathering customs. A school that adapts to this reality is necessary and, for this, the government needs to invest in this type of proposal beyond a constitutional vision[11].

This is a reality of racial-ethnic inequalities, but also of gender inequalities. A reality that has been propagated since colonial times, in which indigenous women and girls were kidnapped by colonizers to occupy positions of domestic maintenance and procreation. The colonizing process impacted the economic system of these traditional peoples, which is not seen as productive enough. The role of indigenous women, then, shifts within this reality. This is why their socio-economic status has such an impact on the achievement of education. Almost 70% of indigenous women are in poverty. Many of them are considered “economically inactive” because they only perform domestic activities[12]. Some authors mention that “being an indigenous woman” in this society implies triple discrimination: ethnic, gender, and class.

The guarantee of the right to education for this part of the Paraguayan population is urgent. Although progress has been made, a better institutionalization of these rights is needed. This must be done while respecting and strengthening the specific culture of each indigenous group.

Conclusion

The lines of hope for improving the educational challenges faced by Paraguay need to be directed at mitigating socioeconomic inequality.  A more inclusive, equitable, and safe school structure is needed. Above all, universalization of access to secondary education. The use of digital transformation in favor of educational progress is also urgent since it is useful and essential learning for the contemporary reality we live in. Investing in education is one of the keys to sustainable development.

These impacts of inequality are also directly linked to the reality of indigenous women. However, more than policies to improve and actions to combat this inequality, it is necessary to give these women the power to make decisions. The issues of poverty and education are just some of the problems faced by this group. Violence is high, and several indigenous women are organizing themselves in the form of activism to combat violence[13]. In this sense, the activism and organization of these peoples are continuously advancing to fight for the guarantee of indigenous peoples’ rights. However, increasing opportunities for political positions and placing them as creators of specific public policies seems to be the most appropriate action.

Although the constitutional right to education exists for every citizen of Paraguay, it is important to point out the distinction that exists between the prerogative of a right and the reality of a quality education. For all.

 

References

[1] Soto, C., & Soto, L. (2020). POLÍTICAS ANTIGÉNERO EN AMÉRICA LATINA: PARAGUAY (S. Correa, Ed.; Género & Politica em América Latina, Trans.) [Review of POLÍTICAS ANTIGÉNERO EN AMÉRICA LATINA: PARAGUAY]. Observatorio de Sexualidad y Política (SPW). https://sxpolitics.org/GPAL/uploads/Ebook-Paraguai%202020203.pdf

[2] Latinobarómetro Database. (2020). Www.latinobarometro.org. https://www.latinobarometro.org/latOnline.jsp

[3] Latinobarómetro Database. (2020). Www.latinobarometro.org. https://www.latinobarometro.org/latOnline.jsp

[4] Latinobarómetro Database. (2020). Www.latinobarometro.org. https://www.latinobarometro.org/latOnline.jsp

[5] Caribe, C. E. para a A. L. e o. (2022, November 29). Seminario web “La transformación de la educación como base para el desarrollo sostenible.” Www.cepal.org. https://www.cepal.org/pt-br/node/57919

[6] https://plus.google.com/+UNESCO. (2021, November 30). Resultados de logros de aprendizaje y factores asociados del Estudio Regional Comparativo y Explicativo (ERCE 2019). UNESCO. https://es.unesco.org/news/resultados-logros-aprendizaje-y-factores-asociados-del-estudio-regional-comparativo-y

[7] Artículos de la Constitución Nacional. Secretaría Nacional de Cultura. (2011, August 17). Retrieved April 7, 2023, from http://www.cultura.gov.py/2011/08/articulos-de-la-constitucion-nacional/#:~:text=ART%C3%8DCULO%2066%20%E2%80%93%20DE%20LA%20EDUCACI%C3%93N%20Y%20LA%20ASISTENCIA&text=Se%20atender%C3%A1%2C%20adem%C3%A1s%2C%20a%20su,econ%C3%B3mica%20y%20la%20alienaci%C3%B3n%20cultural.

[8] SOUZA, K. R., & BUENO, M. L. M. C. (2018). O direito à educação básica no Paraguai. Revista Ibero-Americana de Estudos Em Educação, 13(4), 1536–1551. https://doi.org/10.21723/riaee.unesp.v13.n4.out/dez.2018.11759

[9] Principales Resultados Anuales de la Encuesta Permanente de Hogares Continua (EPHC) 2017 y 2018. (n.d.). Www.ine.gov.py. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://www.ine.gov.py/resumen/MTA0/principales-resultados-anuales-de-la-encuesta-permanente-de-hogares-continua-ephc-2017-y-2018

[10] INE::Instituto Nacional de Estadística. (n.d.). Www.ine.gov.py. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://www.ine.gov.py/publicacion/31/poblacion-indigena

[11] Situación educativa de las niñas y mujeres indígenas en Paraguay. (n.d.). Www.observatorio.org.py. https://www.observatorio.org.py/especial/30

[12]  Situación educativa de las niñas y mujeres indígenas en Paraguay. (n.d.). Www.observatorio.org.py. https://www.observatorio.org.py/especial/30

[13] Por nuestros derechos y contra toda violencia, una reflexión contra la violencia de género con las mujeres indígenas en Paraguay – FIIAPP. (n.d.). Www.fiiapp.org. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://www.fiiapp.org/noticias/derechos-toda-violencia-una-reflexion-la-violencia-genero-las-mujeres-indigenas-paraguay/