Educational Challenges in Afghanistan

Written by Charlotte Lagadec-Jacob

Introduction 

The Taliban’s takeover in 2021 has had a devastating impact on the education system in Afghanistan. The declining quality of education and the promotion of gender inequality have become major concerns for the international community. Last year, UNESCO dedicated its International Day of Education to Afghan girls and women. 

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Picture by Nk Ni via Unsplash

Although Afghanistan has signed multiple UN human rights treaties and conventions, which aim for access to education to all, gender equality and children’s rights, the new education system established by the Taliban restricts access to education for young women, allows the use of corporal punishment at school and has led to a deterioration of the overall quality of education for both boys and girls.

Impact on girls and women’s educational rights

The Taliban takeover in Afghanistan had a negative impact on access to education for girls and women. This issue has been raised by the United Nations as well as NGOs in several reports. Education is a fundamental right enshrined in the Convention of the Rights of the Child. The restrictions imposed on girls and women violate several treaties signed by Afghanistan which prohibit gender-based discrimination. 

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Picture by Wanman uthmaniyyah via Unsplash 

Decrease of the school attendance rate among girls and women

The bans imposed by the Taliban on access to secondary and higher education for girls and women have resulted in a rising drop-out rate among female students in Afghanistan.  

Article 28.1 (e) of the Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 states: 

Governments should “take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the reduction of drop-out rates.”

Despite the ratification of this Convention by Afghanistan, 75% girls are currently out of school. This makes Afghanistan one of the countries with the highest out-of-school rates for girls in the world.

While the ban on access to secondary education for girls was introduced in 2021 as a temporary measure, it is still ongoing. Moreover, the ban on access to university for women violates the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which states that higher education should be ‘accessible to all on the basis of merit’ as opposed to gender. 

Low literacy rate among women 

Most women in Afghanistan are currently illiterate. Despite Afghanistan being a party to the Convention on the Rights of the Child which encourages the elimination of illiteracy, the literacy rate in Afghanistan is currently among the lowest in the world. This particularly applies to women as only 20.6% of Afghan women are literate. 

Being literate is important for daily tasks and cannot be neglected. In the long term, restricting access to education might worsen this situation and jeopardise Afghan girls and women’s independence and future, as it also makes accessing information about humanitarian support more difficult. 

Impact on boys’ educational rights 

Boys are also negatively affected by the new education system introduced under the Taliban. According to Human Rights Watch, boys and their parents have noticed a deterioration in boys’ access to education as well as the quality of their education.

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Photo de Wanman uthmaniyyah sur Unsplash

Corporal punishment 

The use of corporal punishment on boys is becoming more prevalent at school and constitutes a severe violation of human rights law. The Human Rights Watch has reported an increasing use of corporal punishment at school and interference of the “Ministry for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice” with the functioning of Afghan schools since the new education measures were put in place by the Taliban. 

Corporal punishment violates international law and the Convention of the Rights of the Child which was signed by Afghanistan. This convention is complemented by Article 39 the Afghanistan’s education act 2008 which prohibits all forms of punishment at school. 

Afghan students have reported an increasing use of corporal punishment for moral crimes since the Taliban took power in 2021. Mental health issues such as depression and anxiety among boys are unfortunately common consequences of the restrictive measures imposed by the Taliban at school. 

Decreased school attendance rate 

As with girls, the attendance rate of boys at school has decreased since the Taliban takeover.  This may be related to the economic and humanitarian situation of the country which puts more pressure on boys, thus resulting in decreased attendance. Moreover, the regime of fear established by the Taliban at school and a loss of motivation due to the low quality of education may lead some male students to stop coming to class.

Promotion of a misogynistic society 

Barring girls and women from studying and teaching also has a negative impact on the quality of learning of boys in Afghanistan and promotes values in contradiction with human rights treaties and conventions signed by the country.

Under the Taliban regime, female teachers are restricted to teach boys and were replaced by men regardless of their qualifications and experience. Sometimes, no replacement could be found, leading to the disruption of classes.  This certainly has had a deteriorating effect on the quality of education of boys.

In addition to the decline of the quality of education caused by these replacements or teacher shortage, the new education system established under the Taliban promotes values in contradiction with rights enshrined in human rights treaties. Gender-based segregation by excluding girls from secondary schools and universities as well as the modification of the school curriculum may also have a negative impact on boys as it shows them an example of society where men and women are not equal. This promotion of misogyny violates several human rights treaties ratified by Afghanistan which provides that men and women should enjoy the same rights and be equal. 

These new decrees introduced by the Taliban regarding education constitute severe violations of human rights law.  

Impact on the overall quality of education

In addition to the ban on female teachers which severely undermines the quality of education in Afghanistan, the change of curriculum by the Taliban and the condition of facilities in some schools constitute significant challenges to the current education system of the country.

Change in curriculum 

The new curriculum established under the Taliban does not align with human rights law and appears to deny women’s rights. Human rights treaties provide that education should encourage the full development of the human personality and the respect of human rights. 

Despite the ratification of these treaties by Afghanistan, important subjects such as English, civic education, physical education, arts have been removed and the new curriculum focuses primarily on religion as well as on the view of women’s Islamic rights. A report obtained by Human Rights Watch in January 2022 which is believed to be an internal proposal for the revision of the curriculum contains discriminatory statements such as: 

“Many books have presented women’s rights as human rights. The teachers must explain women’s rights through the framework of Islam, not what the West calls women’s rights.”

Issues with the condition of educational facilities and infrastructure

Poor standards of hygiene and a lack of clean water, toilets and soap may also have an impact on school attendance. In over 50% of schools in Afghanistan, there is no clean drinking water and in over one-third of schools, there are no toilets where students can wash their hands. 

Conclusion and recommendations

Despite the ratification of multiple human rights treaties and conventions by Afghanistan, the Taliban have established an education system which causes gender-based discrimination, promotes illiteracy and allows human rights violations such as corporal punishment at school. Different recommendations can be made to address these issues. 

Combating illiteracy among girls and women in Afghanistan

The high rate of illiteracy (particularly among girls and women) in Afghanistan calls for action. For example, the EU, UN Women and UNESCO have collaborated in implementing the project “Empowering women and adolescent girls in Afghanistan through literacy and skills development for sustainable livelihoods”. Other projects could be initiated in this regard. 

Encouraging vocational and community-based education for girls and women

Among options currently available to girls and women to remedy the ban on secondary and higher education imposed by the Taliban, vocational education can be considered. This alternative can help women secure self-employment, thus allowing them to obtain financial independence. UNESCO currently provides literacy and pre-vocational training to over 55,000 young people and adolescents (over 68% of students are women and adolescent girls) in Afghanistan. UNICEF also provides children (mostly girls) with community-based education classes and teaching and learning materials. 

Providing women with teacher training

Teacher training could be provided to women who aspire to teach. This was the approach taken by UNICEF for its Girls’ Access to Teacher Education (GATE) programme. 

Addressing corporal punishment at school

The use of corporal punishment on children constitutes a severe violation of human rights law and might severely undermine the quality of education of boys as it may lead some students to drop out of school. It is urgent to act to prevent such punishments at school. 

Improving the condition of educational facilities to foster attendance at school.

Since 2024, UNICEF and the EU have joined forces in improving the condition of buildings and classrooms in 385 public primary schools in Afghanistan. UNICEF stressed the importance of ‘rehabilitating classrooms, building toilets and water systems’.

References

Educational Challenges in St. Lucia

Introduction

St. Lucia is a small island located in the eastern Caribbean, just on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean. St. Lucia’s population of 167,591 is composed of 4 primary ethnic groups: Black/African descent (85.3%), mixed (10.9%), East Indian (2.2%), and other (1.6%).i The economy is upheld by three pillars: services (i.e., tourism) (82.8%), industry (14.2%), and agriculture (i.e., exports of bananas, cassava, coconuts, and other fruits/vegetables) (2.9%).ii

The right to education is protected by Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), which holds that “Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all based on merit”.iii

The St. Lucian Ministry of Education (MOE) affirmed these commitments in the Education Act of 1999 (revised 2001), Section 14, The Right to Education, which holds that “subject to available resources, all persons are entitled to receive an educational programme appropriate to their needs”.iv Furthermore, education is compulsory from ages 5-15.v

In addition, St. Lucia’s educational goals are reflected by the national Education for All (EFA) report. These goals include: “ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality; ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programs”.vi However, St. Lucia continues to struggle with lack of funding/teacher training, and hair discrimination in academic settings. In this article, I will analyse these issues in the St. Lucian context, and outline recommendations.

Corporal Punishment

Corporal punishment stems from St. Lucia’s history of colonialism and slavery.vii St. Lucia was colonised by the English between 1605-1638, who exterminated the indigenous Arawak and Kalinago Caribs from the island. The island was quickly populated with an enslaved population of people from African descent. Slave owners would beat and torture these enslaved people to discourage revolts. Children were subject to beatings from both slave owners and elders (often as a means of ensuring they would not upset slave owners, and thus put themselves in danger). These power dynamics solidified corporal punishment as a cultural institution.

Furthermore, the British colonial and penal codes legalised it at home and in school.viii Section 50 of the Education Act 1999, permitted corporal punishment:

“(1) In the enforcement of discipline in public schools, assisted schools and private educational institutions, degrading or injurious punishment shall not be administered. (2) Corporal punishment may be administered where no other punishment is considered suitable or effective, and only by the principal, deputy principal or any teacher appointed by the Chief Education Officer”.ix

However, these practices have been adjusted. The Child Justice Act of 2018 and the CHILD (care, protection and adoption) Act of 2018 both reformed the state of corporal punishment in schools. Furthermore, in January 2019, an Order on the “suspension and ultimate abolition of corporal punishment in schools” was presented in the Cabinet.x It reformed section 50 of the Education Act 1999 by making CP illegal from 1 May 2019. Nyaley Lewis, an educator in St. Lucia, discusses her experiences with corporal punishment as a student and a teacher.

Ms. Lewis recalls that in infant and primary school, students would receive “a certain number of lashes”, often with a ruler, as a punishment. However, she recalls that children often “couldn’t tell what they had done wrong”. The violence she experienced still sits with her to this day. “I remember one time when I had been bullied…I had acted in self-defence…” as a result, the teacher had forced her (and the bully) to “kneel down in front of the class” and called them “wild animals”. She still remembers the teacher who did this, and “feels like [she] was done wrong”.

However, in practice, St. Lucia has made significant strides in eradicating corporal punishment in schools. Ms. Lewis informed Broken Chalk that “You’re not allowed to do it…nobody really does it anymore”. Instead, as one of the youngest teachers at her school, she aims to make her students feel comfortable in class. Ms. Lewis’ experiences align with the amendments made to Section 50 of the Education Act of 1999.

The Order on the suspension and abolition of corporal punishment affirms Article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), which maintains that “States Parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child…”.xi

The order also enforces Article 28 (2) of the CRC: “States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that school discipline is administered in a manner consistent with the child’s human dignity and in conformity with the present Convention”.xii These motions reflect progress with respect to corporal punishment in the Saint Lucian education system.

Funding & Teaching

In 2022, the St. Lucian government spent approximately 4.6% of its $2.5 billion GDP on education.xiii However, funding for impact research into the education system is often lacking.xiv This results in a disconnect between policy makers and the needs of students/teachers. SUMMA, an educational research institute, reports that this disconnect hinders St. Lucia’s education system.xv Research into policy impacts could create more effective education policies.

In addition, teachers require more training, support, and incentives from the government.xvi Professional development –such as, addressing gender gaps, and pedagogical training– remains a persistent issue. However, educators often feel unable to adapt to “multiple intelligences in the classroom”.xvii This results in achievement disparities between students and career stagnation for teachers.

Funding is central to this issue. Professional evaluations are necessary for teachers to receive benefits and promotions.xviii The certification process–i.e., qualifications which demarcate a secondary education teacher from a graduate teacher–remains underfunded.xix Teachers are therefore limited in their abilities to cater to different students’ needs. In addition, lack of teachers involved in school curricula and assessments reduce educators’ agency over the material being taught.xx Funding the systems which allow teachers to improve may allow them to help students grow as learners. Interestingly, the percentage of trained primary school teachers in St. Lucia has been relatively stable since 2008.

From 2008 to 2019, approximately 89-91% of primary teachers have been trained.xxi In contrast, only 74% of secondary teachers were trained in 2019.xxii These figures demonstrate steady improvement from previous years. However, due to a lack of available data, it is unclear if those trends have continued through the pandemic into 2023. The lack of information partially affirms SUMMA’s indication that the government is not investing enough in impact analysis.

Hair Discrimination

Although 85% of the St. Lucian population is Black, children with afro hair are systematically discriminated against in schools. Teachers discourage children from wearing locks, braids, or even large natural afros.xxiii However, these policies do not apply to children with non-curly hair (i.e., white/Indian/some mixed-race students). In practice, students are forced to shave their heads and restrict their self-expression, which contradicts the UN Charter on the Right of the Child.

Article 13 of The Convention of The Rights of The Child enshrines children’s right to freedom of expression.xxiv In turn, the Education Act of 1999–St. Lucia’s primary document governing education–maintains that students must adhere to standards “approved by the Chief Education Officer or the principal as the case may be, with respect to: (i) cleanliness and tidiness of the person”.xxv These standards must be revised to accommodate Black hair.

For example, in 2022, a Black student was banned from class due to the length of his hair.xxvi The student’s parents have since brought the issue to court, which ruled that the student be allowed to attend classes. However, it ignited a conversation surrounding discriminatory grooming policies in St. Lucia. Shawn Edward, the Minister of Education, emphasised that “this is 2022, some of the policies–some of the rules–which would have informed decisions at the school level 10 or 15 years

ago need to be revised”.xxvii

Ms. Lewis has also observed these dynamics as a student and in her own classroom. As a student, she enjoyed exploring her identity through her hair. However, she—like many other Black students—was not allowed to wear her afro. Teachers and students are still discouraged from wearing their natural hair. Ms. Lewis, nevertheless, actively tries to wear her afro while teaching. The politics surrounding grooming standards are also gendered. Ms. Lewis notes that “Girls are still not allowed to wear an afro”. The issue, as Mr. Edward alluded to above, is rooted in generational values. The older generation of teachers grew up with standards of cleanliness defined by British colonialists which emphasised maintaining authority.

Recommendations

The St. Lucian education system has three core limitations: funding, training teachers, and hair discrimination. St. Lucia’s budget must allocate resources towards (1) impact research and (2) training teachers. Impact research will help the government evaluate the efficacy of different policies. This can increase responsiveness to the needs of students and teachers. St. Lucia’s financial constraints mean that principals must carefully prioritise their resources. Students must be at the centre, but teacher training, which will support students, should follow. Second, training teachers is integral to career development and supporting the needs of different learners. This could mitigate the learning deficit between boys and girls, and students with learning disabilities. Third, the government must apply pressure on principals who discriminate against Black hair styles. New parameters of ‘acceptability’ need to be adopted. In doing so, students with different hairstyles can be secure in their right to self-expression in school.

Each of these issues have already been addressed either through laws or civil society. However, the division between these spheres has resulted in miscommunication between social interests and governmental proposals. A greater effort to solve problems, revise policies, and evaluate impact, is necessary on both sides.

By Benjamin Koponen

(Instagram account: benkoponen)

(LinkedIn: Benjamin Koponen)

Photo by Jean-Marc Astesana on flickr

References

Bailey, C. B., Robinson, T. R., & Coore-Desai, C. C. D. (2014). Corporal Punishment in the Caribbean: Attitudes and Practices. In Social and Economic Studies (Vol. 63, Issue 3/4, pp. 207–233). https://www.jstor.org/stable/44732891

Chitolie-Joseph, E. C. J., Ministry of Education, & Corporate Planning Unit. (20145). Education for All National Review Report: Saint Lucia. Saint Lucia Ministry of Education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230028.

Convention on the rights of the child (1989) Treaty no. 27531. United Nations Treaty Series, 1577. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/crc.pdf.

Education Act, 1999 (No. 41 of 1999), Part 2. Division 1. www.natlex.ilo.org.

Good Morning St. Lucia. (2022, September 28). Nigel Edwin Speaks on Hair Discrimination at Schools In Saint Lucia [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VVXuaBLAPmQ&t=1s

Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. (Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

Saint Lucia – The World Factbook. (2023). https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saint-lucia

Stuart, J. (2022, September 6). Father suing St Mary’s College for denying son entry due to hair. Loop News. Https://stlucia.loopnews.com/content/father-suing-st-marys-college-denying-son-entry-due-hair

The Central Statistical Office of Saint Lucia. (2021). Percentage of Trained Teachers in Secondary Schools, 1992/1993 to 2018/2019 [Dataset]. The Central Statistical Office of Saint Lucia. https://stats.gov.lc/subjects/society/education/percentage-of-trained-teachers-in-secondary-schools-1992-1993-to-2018-2019/

United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights | United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights#:~:text=Article%2026,on%20the%20basis%20of%20merit.

World Bank Open Data. (2022). World Bank Open Data. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=LC

i Saint Lucia – The World Factbook. (2023). https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saint-lucia

ii Saint Lucia – The World Factbook. (2023). https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saint-lucia

iii United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights | United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights#:~:text=Article%2026,on%20the%20basis%20of%20merit.

iv Chitolie-Joseph, E. C. J., Ministry of Education, & Corporate Planning Unit. (2014). Education for All National Review Report: Saint Lucia. Saint Lucia Ministry of Education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230028.

v Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. (Link does not work.

Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

vi Chitolie-Joseph, E. C. J., Ministry of Education, & Corporate Planning Unit. (2014). Education

for All National Review Report: Saint Lucia. Saint Lucia Ministry of Education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230028.

vii Bailey, C. B., Robinson, T. R., & Coore-Desai, C. C. D. (2014). Corporal Punishment in the Caribbean: Attitudes and Practices. In Social and Economic Studies (Vol. 63, Issue 3/4, pp. 207–233). www.jstor.org/stable/44732891

viii Chitolie-Joseph, E. C. J., Ministry of Education, & Corporate Planning Unit. (2015). 

Education for All National Review Report: Saint Lucia. Saint Lucia Ministry of Education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230028.

ix Bailey, C. B., Robinson, T. R., & Coore-Desai, C. C. D. (2014). Corporal Punishment in the

Caribbean: Attitudes and Practices. In Social and Economic Studies (Vol. 63, Issue 3/4, pp. 207–233). www.jstor.org/stable/44732891

x Bailey, C. B., Robinson, T. R., & Coore-Desai, C. C. D. (2014). Corporal Punishment in the
Caribbean: Attitudes and Practices. In Social and Economic Studies (Vol. 63, Issue 3/4, pp. 207–233). www.jstor.org/stable/44732891

xi Convention on the rights of the child (1989) Treaty no. 27531. United Nations Treaty Series,

1577, (p.5). https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/crc.pdf

xii Bailey, C. B., Robinson, T. R., & Coore-Desai, C. C. D. (2014). Corporal Punishment in the Caribbean: Attitudes and Practices. In Social and Economic Studies (Vol. 63, Issue 3/4, pp. 207–233). https://www.jstor.org/stable/44732891

xiii World Bank Open Data. (2022). World Bank Open Data. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=LC

xiv Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile.

https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xv Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xvi Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xvii Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xviii Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xix Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile. https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xx Knight, V., Marshall, J., Depradine, K., & Moody-Marshall, R. (2021). Country review. Challenges and opportunities in the education system of Saint Lucia. Serie Working Papers SUMMA. N° 15. Published by SUMMA. Santiago de Chile.

https://www.summaedu.org

(Link does not work. Please copy and paste citation in your browser to find the source).

xxi The Central Statistical Office of Saint Lucia. (2021). Trained Teachers in Primary Schools, 1994/1995 to 2019/2020 [Dataset]. https://stats.gov.lc/subjects/society/education/trained-teachers-in-primary-schools-1994-1995-to-2019-2020/

xxii The Central Statistical Office of Saint Lucia. (2021). Percentage of Trained Teachers in Secondary Schools, 1992/1993 to 2018/2019 [Dataset]. The Central Statistical Office of Saint Lucia. https://stats.gov.lc/subjects/society/education/percentage-of-trained-teachers-in-secondary-schools-1992-1993-to-2018-2019/

xxiii Stuart, J. (2022, September 6). Father suing St Mary’s College for denying son entry due to hair. Loop News. Https://stlucia.loopnews.com/content/father-suing-st-marys-college-denying-son-entry-due-hair

xxiv Convention on the rights of the child (1989) Treaty no. 27531. United Nations Treaty Series, 1577, (p.4). https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/crc.pdf.

xxv Education Act, 1999 (No. 41 of 1999), Part 2. Division 1. www.natlex.ilo.org.

xxvi Good Morning St. Lucia. (2022, September 28). Nigel Edwin Speaks on Hair Discrimination at Schools In Saint Lucia [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VVXuaBLAPmQ&t=1s

xxvii Good Morning St. Lucia. (2022, September 28). Nigel Edwin Speaks on Hair Discrimination at Schools In Saint Lucia [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VVXuaBLAPmQ&t=1s