This report drafted by Broken Chalk contributes to the fourth cycle of the Universal Periodic Review for Jordan. This report focuses exclusively on human rights issues in the field of education in Jordan.
In the previous UPR cycle, Jordan received 226 recommendations, and it supported 149 recommendations. Some of these recommendations focused on the Sustainable Development Goal of “Quality Education”.
This report first explores the main issues in the educational field in Jordan, reflecting on the recommendations Jordan received in the 3rd cycle UN UPR review in 2018 and its progress since. Finally, Broken Chalk offers some recommendations to Jordan on further improving human rights in the educational field.
As per the letter by the High Commissioner to the Foreigner Minister, issues were raised explicitly for the right to education, which included making education accessible, particularly by ratifying human rights instruments, making education culturally acceptable, preventing marginalisation, making education accessible for those students in remote areas, promote tolerance and respect for religious diversity, emphasis to be laid on non-discrimination focusing on inclusivity in education, particularly for women and other minority groups and persons with disabilities and ensuring educational rights are guaranteed to refugee children.
Jordan has continued its commitment to the right to education through the Jordan Declaration on Inclusion and Diversity in Education.
Broken Chalk has drafted the following report as a stakeholder contribution to the 4th cycle of the 45th session of the Universal Periodic Review [UPR]. As Broken Chalk’s primary focus as an organisation is to combat human rights violations within the educational sphere, this report and the following recommendations will be related to the Right to Education.
During the previous Cycle of the UPR, Monaco has supported 72 out of 113 received recommendations, noted 35, and has not expressed its position on six other recommendations. Five suggestions are directly concerned with the Right to Education, and Monaco has supported all of them. Recommendation 76.31 urges Monaco to take action to ensure equal access to education. Recommendation 76.34 advocates for strengthening access to education at all levels for girls and young women. Recommendation 76.35 refers to integrating deaf-mute and visually impaired persons and their specific needs into the Monegasque educational system. Last but not least, recommendations 76.32 and 76.33 advise Monaco to take further legal measures to strengthen the right to education for children who are not Monegasque citizens and to guarantee access to education for all children, irrespective of their nationality.
The Permanent Representative of Monaco to the United Nations Office at Geneva, Carole Lanteri, has expressed deep commitment and attachment to the promotion and protection of human rights and the Universal Periodic Review and has noted equal access to education and care for all children who live in Monaco, without any discrimination based on gender or age.
Broken Chalk is an Amsterdam-based non-profit human rights organisation focusing on the global development of human rights and education. By submitting this report, Broken Chalk hopes to contribute to the 44th Session of the Universal Periodic Review (UPR) and further the efforts made by the Federal Republic of Nigeria to structure its education sector continually and positively.
In its third UPR cycle, the Federal Republic of Nigeria received 290 recommendations, supporting 230 and noting 60.
Education in the Federal Republic of Nigeria faces many challenges. One of the most pressing issues is the learning crisis, with 3 out of four children in primary school unable to read. As stated by UNICEF, there is an alarming rate of school dropout, with one in five children out of school in the world being from the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Children are affected by the Boko Haram insurgency as well as gender biases.
Broken Chalk is a non-profit NGO with one main goal to protect human rights in the world of education. The organization investigates and reports education rights violations worldwide while advocating and supporting human-rights-focused educational development. By submitting this report, Broken Chalk aims to contribute to the 45th Session of the Universal Periodic Review (UPR) of Belize with a focus on the education sector, encouraging the country to continue its improvement efforts and providing further insight into how to overcome current challenges and deficiencies regarding human rights in education.
Belize’s average Human Development Index value throughout that time period was 0.668 points, with a low of 0.613 points in 1990 and a high of 0.722 points in 2016. The most recent value is 0.683 points from 2021. [1] The Index, which includes factors such as life expectancy, education, and per capita income, placed Belize in the high human development category, with a ranking of 103 out of 189 countries and territories. [2]
Belize’s population is projected to be around 1400,000 people, with a slightly higher proportion of rural (55%) than urban (45%) residents and an equal proportion of males and females. The majority of the population, 65.8%, is between the ages of 15 and 64, with another 29.2% between the ages of 0 and 14, and those 65 and above accounting for the remaining 5%. [3]
Mestizos/Hispanics make up 47.9% of Belize’s population and the majority of residents in the Corozal, Orange Walk, Cayo, and Stann Creek districts, according to the country’s 2010 Census. Creoles are the second largest ethnic group, accounting for 25.9% of the population in the Belize District. The Maya (Ketchi, Mopan, and Yucatec) make up 11.3% of the population and are the majority group in the Toledo District, while Garifunas, East Indians, and Mennonites make up 6.1%, 3.9%, and 3.6% of the overall population, respectively. [3]
Despite its diversity, Belize has maintained a stable parliamentary democracy without serious ethnic or religious conflict and there has been numerous and peaceful transitions of power between the country’s two major political parties since its independence from Great Britain in 1981. [3]
References [1] Global Economy https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Belize/human_development/#:~:text=Human%20Development %20Index%20(0%20%2D%201)&text=For%20that%20indicato %2C%20we%20provide,from%202021 %20is%200.683%20points. [2] IOM https://publications.iom.int/books/belize-needs-assessment-migration-governance [3] The Belize Education Sector Plan 2021-2025 https://www.moecst.gov.bz/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/The-Belize-Education-Sector-Plan-2021-2025_MoECST.pdf
Broken Chalk is a non-profit organisation with one main goal – To protect human rights in education. The organisation has a website and articles and is currently working on multiple projects, each aiming to fight human rights violations in the educational sphere. This report drafted by Broken Chalk contributes to the fourth cycle of the Universal Periodic Review (UPR) for China, focusing exclusively on China’s human rights issues in education.
During the 3rd Cycle of the Universal Periodic Review for China in November 2018, China received 346 recommendations and supported 284. Twelve per cent of these supported recommendations relate to the 4th Sustainable Development Goal, Quality Education. These recommendations in the 3rd UPR Cycle will be the basis on which Broken Chalk discusses the progress of human rights issues related to education in China. This report from Broken Chalk will also suggest some recommendations for these educational issues as part of the 4th cycle of the Universal Periodic Review for China.
Human rights are the rights one enjoys simply because they are human. According to the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), there are thirty rights to which all people are entitled, irrespective of their race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, or other status. Article 26 of the UDHR states that everyone has the right to education and recognizes education as one of the fundamental rights to which all humans are entitled. Education has not only proven to be a pivotal tool for every country’s development but has also served as an indispensable element that facilitates the realization of other human rights (UN, 2001). Botswana, since it gained independence in 1966, has made a commitment to ensuring that all children, regardless of gender, ethnicity, socio-economic background, or circumstances, realize their right to a quality education. While Botswana has made significant strides in its development journey, the country still faces several challenges that need to be addressed in order to improve the quality of education and provide better opportunities for its citizens. This report will explore the educational system, challenges, and recommended solutions to improve Botswana’s educational accessibility, quality, and delivery.
School students celebrating Botswana’s 50th independence day. Photo by Mahyar Sheykhi
Botswana’s Education System.
Botswana has made significant strides in its education system through key reforms implemented over the years. These include the enactment of the Education Act in 1967, followed by the establishment of the National Commission on Education (NCE) in the 1970s. The NCE formulated Botswana’s education philosophy and set development goals. In 1977, the National Policy on Education (NPE) was adopted, emphasizing access and social harmony. The introduction of the National Literacy Policy (NLP) in 1981 addressed adult literacy challenges. The Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE) was adopted in 1994, aligning with international education goals. Vision 2016 was launched in 1996, highlighting education as a pillar for national development. Also, the Education and Training Sector Strategic Plan (ETSSP) was introduced in 2015 to transform education quality. In 2016, Botswana built upon the successes and lessons learned from the previous national development vision, Vision 2016, and formulated Botswana Vision 2036, a long-term development plan with a strong focus on education and skills development. Recognizing that education and skills are crucial for human resource development, the vision prioritizes quality education at all levels and aims to equip citizens with the knowledge and capabilities needed for sustainable socio-economic growth.
Botswana’s school system consists of pre-primary, 7 years of primary school, 3 years of junior secondary, and 2 years of senior secondary education. The various national policies mentioned above have resulted in significant developments in Botswana’s education system. These include a considerable increase in public education funding and enhanced access to educational opportunities. Consequently, literacy rates have experienced notable improvement, enabling more individuals to acquire basic literacy skills. To meet the growing demand for education, additional schools have been constructed, expanding the overall education infrastructure. Furthermore, there has been a substantial increase in student enrollment rates in both primary and secondary schools, reflecting the heightened emphasis placed on education in Botswana.
Botswana’s Educational Challenges and Recommended Solutions
Despite the significant milestones achieved in Botswana’s educational system over the years, the country still faces several challenges.
One of such challenges includes significant socio-economic disparities, particularly in rural areas where high poverty rates prevail. A study by Makwinja (2022) revealed that in Botswana, poverty poses challenges for families sending their children to school, and some children are forced to work as maids, farm hands, or babysitters to support their families instead of attending school. Again, many students attend school without proper uniforms, and the lack of school buses results in long walks to reach educational institutions, with limited access to educational institutions such as books and computers. All this contributes to low literacy rates, leading to inequality in education delivery in Botswana. This clearly infringes on the right of children to education as against Article 29 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC). While the government provides some support through the social welfare department, more comprehensive and accessible poverty alleviation programs are needed to address this issue effectively. By improving the nutritional quality of meals provided to children and implementing targeted interventions, Botswana can encourage school attendance, reduce dropout rates, and improve overall academic performance.
Also, the education budget in Botswana is disproportionately focused on tertiary education, resulting in limited resources allocated to pre-primary and primary education (Mokibelo, 2022). This imbalance poses a significant challenge to the delivery of quality education, particularly at the early stages of learning. Despite the recognition of the importance of education and skills development in Botswana’s Vision 2036, the budgetary prioritization hinders the necessary investments in pre-primary and primary education, leading to educational inequality and a lack of adequate support for early childhood development (Mokibelo, 2022). According to a UNICEF report in Botswana in 2022, only 43% of children between the ages of 4-5 have access to early learning opportunities, indicating limited participation in early childhood education. Furthermore, approximately one-third of children struggle to acquire basic literacy skills after 4–5 years of primary education. The pass rates in the Primary School examination and Junior Certificate examination are also concerning, with around one-third and two-thirds of children failing, respectively. These issues can be attributed to a lack of proper training and support during the early stages of children’s education. Additionally, there remains a notable proportion of children who are not enrolled in school, further impeding progress towards achieving universal access to education. To uphold the rights of children as stated in the UNCR and address the challenge above, Botswana should prioritize investment in early childhood and primary education to ensure equitable access to education for all children, regardless of their circumstances, and foster an inclusive and fair society. Secondly, provide comprehensive teacher training programs to enhance teaching practices and create child-centered learning environments.
Likewise, Botswana faces poor quality education, as evidenced by low pass rates at the junior and senior secondary levels (Suping, 2022). Currently, the teaching approach in Botswana remains predominantly traditional, with students passively listening to teachers and taking notes (Makwinja, 2022). There is limited emphasis on critical thinking and active student engagement. To address this, teachers and lecturers need to adopt innovative teaching methods that encourage collaboration, group work, and utilize available internet resources. It is crucial for teachers to undergo training to enhance their knowledge, skills, and competencies, aligning with international standards of performance. The focus should shift from test scores to fostering critical and analytical thinking through competence-based approaches. Collaboration among teachers as a community is essential, allowing for immediate support and shared challenges. These measures are crucial for improving educational outcomes and promoting youth development in Botswana.
Furthermore, the education system in Botswana faces the significant challenge of overcrowded classrooms and inadequate infrastructure, especially in rural areas, which hinders the delivery of quality education. The lack of suitable structures, overcrowding, and shortage of classrooms contribute to uneven teacher-student ratios and impede individualized instruction and high-quality learning experiences. In secondary schools, it is not uncommon to find classes with over 40 students, far exceeding the recommended ratio of 1:15 in primary schools. (Mokibelo, 2022). These infrastructure constraints also limit access to technology and educational resources, exacerbating the existing challenges. Resolving these issues by investing in infrastructure 2Wdevelopment and reducing class sizes is crucial to improving the overall quality of education and providing students with the necessary resources for their academic success.
Again, in Botswana, school dropouts are a significant challenge that requires immediate attention. According to survey data, when school was free, although not compulsory, most children were enrolled in primary and junior secondary schools. For instance, it has been reported that approximately 70% of junior secondary school (JSS) leavers progressed to senior secondary school (SSS) during that time, and the dropout rate was relatively low (UNICEF, 2022). While the rest of the JSS leavers progress to Brigades, which offer more vocationally based training. However, the reintroduction of school fees in 2007 has led to inequality in education in Botswana, particularly for families with lower economic means, which has exacerbated dropout rates. To combat school dropout, Botswana needs to improve education quality, provide support for struggling students, and address financial barriers. Collaboration among government, NGOs, and community stakeholders is vital for creating an inclusive learning environment. By implementing comprehensive solutions and targeting specific challenges, Botswana can reduce dropout rates, ensure equal access to education, and empower its youth.
In addition to the above, gender-based challenges, such as early sexual initiation, the risk of HIV infection, and gender-based violence, pose significant obstacles to girls’ education in Botswana (UNICEF, 2022). Adolescent girls and young women face multiple barriers that impede their access to quality education. Consequently, these challenges contribute to high dropout rates among girls, exacerbating gender disparities in the education system. Limited access to sexual and reproductive health services and inadequate support systems further hinder girls’ educational progress. To address these issues, it is essential to implement comprehensive strategies. This includes promoting gender equality, providing comprehensive sexual and reproductive health education, enhancing access to healthcare services, and establishing safe and supportive learning environments. By prioritizing these measures, Botswana can create an inclusive educational system that empowers girls, enables their educational advancement, and fosters gender equality in education.
Similarly, mental health issues, including high suicide rates and poor mental well-being, have a profound impact on educational outcomes in Botswana. The limited availability of mental health services, particularly for adolescents, exacerbates these challenges. The lack of youth-friendly services and inadequate support within schools create significant barriers to learning and student engagement. Recommended solutions to address mental health challenges in Botswana’s education system include increasing access to mental health services, integrating mental health education into the curriculum, creating supportive learning environments, and fostering collaboration with stakeholders for holistic support.
In conclusion, ensuring quality and accessible education for all, regardless of background, is of utmost importance. Education plays a crucial role in promoting socio-economic growth and development. It is, therefore, imperative that policymakers, government officials, NGOs, and advocacy groups collaborate at various levels, including national, regional, district, and grassroots levels, to initiate meaningful and sustainable changes that allow for quality and accessible education for all.
References
Makwinja, V. M. (2017). Rethinking education in Botswana: A need to overhaul the Botswana education system. Journal of International Education Research (JIER), 13(2), 45-58. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19030/jier.v13i2.10075
Makwinja, V. M., & Nthoi, O. N. Finding Solutions for Addressing Poor Performance in the Botswana Education Systems and Lessons Learnt From COVID-19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22492/issn.2435-9467.2022.6
Mokibelo, E. (2022). Implementing Early Childhood Education in Botswana: Teething Problems. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies (JETERAPS), 13(2), 41-51.
Suping, K. (2022). Political Spectacle and the Decline of Public Education in Botswana. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 00219096221117077. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096221117077
Malaysia, which gained independence in 1957 from British rule, has successfully transitioned its economy from an agriculture-based economy to robust manufacturing and service sectors. This economic diversification pushed the country to become a leading exporter of electrical appliance parts and components (World Bank, 2022).
During the last two decades, this culturally diverse country has become an upper-middle-income country. The growth in poverty reduction has been made, with income poverty falling from 50 percent in the 1970s to 0.4 percent in 2016 (UNICEF, 2022). Since 2010, it has grown at a 5.4 percent annual rate, and it is predicted to move from an upper middle-income economy to a high-income economy by 2024 (World Bank, 2022).
However, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a huge negative impact on Malaysia, mostly on vulnerable households. Following the revision of the official poverty line in July 2020, 5.6% of Malaysian households now live in absolute poverty (UNICEF, 2022). The pandemic caused issues that directly affected adolescents, children, and women in many ways.
According to the national education system, six-year education is required to start after children reach the age of six. Public schools offer 11 years of free primary and secondary education. Early childhood education (ECE) is not mandatory in Malaysia; however, preschool is accessible to children aged 4 and up. According to the Ministry of Education’s 2017 Annual Report, national preschool enrollment for children aged 4 and up was 84.3 percent (Ministry of Education of Malaysia, 2018).
Enrollment in primary and secondary education in Malaysia is generally high, with enrollment increasing at every grade level since 2013. Secondary enrollment is lower than primary enrollment, and enrollment decreases by 10 percent between the lower and upper secondary levels. A variety of governmental, private, international, and religious institutions provide higher education (Ministry of Education of Malaysia, 2018).
The Education 2030 Agenda’s Sustainable Development Goal 4 allocates at least 4 percent of GDP and 15 percent of national expenditure on public services to education (UNESCO, 2022). Government education spending accounted for 4.77 percent of GDP and 21 percent of total government spending in 2017. According to recent data, Malaysia has been reducing its education expenditure from 2011 by 5.8 percent to 2020 by 3.9 percent (World Bank Data, 2023). This is the highest of any ASEAN country. Education spending is also the Malaysian government’s largest single expenditure.
Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013–2025 outlines five aims that motivate Malaysia’s educational system: access, quality, fairness, unity, and efficiency. To realize the objective of Education for All, full access to education and the closing of achievement disparities for equity must be met. The Ministry is committed to increasing primary school enrollment and decreasing dropout rates in distant areas (Abu Bakar, 2022).
To achieve these two educational goals of “access” and “equity”, the government has provided additional support and programs over the years, including a financial assistance program, a program for Special Education Needs, and a special program for the Orang Asli communities. The Ministry of Education (MOE) has also incorporated ICT in the classroom to improve teaching and learning. Despite government improvements, many challenges impede the success of Malaysian education.
Main Problems in Education in Malaysia
Quality of Education
Education quality is a huge concern, with almost 60 percent of 15-year-old Malaysian students failing to meet minimum competence standards (Anderson & Barrett, 2020). Although improvements have been made during the last few years, Malaysian students are still under performing compared to international averages.
In the most recent PISA testing (2018), 54 percent of Malaysian students achieved minimum proficiency in reading, 59 percent in math, and 63 percent in science, compared to the OECD average of 77 percent (reading), 76 percent (math), and 78 percent (science) (OECD, 2019). This shows that the high amount of government spending on education may not be allocated to factors that have the biggest impact on learning outcomes.
Poor teacher quality is another barrier to quality and learning outcomes: 93 percent of those applying for a Bachelor of Education and 70 percent of those offered a place in the program did not have the necessary qualifications, and only 3 percent of offers were made to applicants considered high performers (UNICEF Malaysia, 2019). And also, a lack of autonomy in schools is a challenge. Researchers found that rigidity in curriculum and delivery hampered quality learning, and the high degree of centralization in the education system was also found to have hampered the efficient production and distribution of education services (Anderson & Barrett, 2020).
As mentioned before, the government’s spending on education is very high compared to the region. However, the amount of money granted to each school is determined by the number of students enrolled in the current school year, not by the school’s needs or the socioeconomic status of the students (Abu Bakar, 2022). This causes schools with fewer students in rural areas to get less financial support. Therefore, the discrimination against rural areas students are made to reach resources to get a better education.
Compared to students in larger cities, most parents in rural areas have lower incomes. They are unable to give their children the facilities and resources they require for academic success. The gap in quality education is realized between urban and rural areas of the country. As a result, the students’ achievements in urban areas are higher. This issue creates a gap in establishing educational equity between urban and rural schools.
Another weak point that divides rural and urban education quality is the lack of internet connectivity to support e-learning. Inadequate connectivity and device limits have been identified as significant problems in adopting teaching and learning in rural areas.
The most criticized issue when it comes to the quality of education in the country is the syllabus. It is discussed among educators that the learning syllabus for primary and secondary schools is too high-level and illogical for students. The high number of students per classroom, the number of subjects, and heavy school bags are threats to the health of the children. Heavy subjects in the study plan create a burden rather than joy for learning students and drop their success rates (The Malaysian Reserve, 2022).
Most children get 11 years of education in Malaysia; however, there is an important number of out-of-school children. Secondary school students are at more risk of dropping out than younger children in primary school. According to the Ministry of Education, the following factors contribute to children dropping out: lack of parental participation; poverty; low motivation; and low academic proficiency (Ministry of Education of Malaysia, 2018).
The most vulnerable ones to access education are children with disabilities and refugee children. 1 in 3 disabled children is out of school. Children with special education needs (SEN) are defined as children with visual, hearing, speech, and physical disabilities, learning disabilities, or any combination of disabilities and difficulties under the Education (Special Education) Regulations 2013, which apply to government and government-aided schools (Yan-Li & Sofian, 2018). Notably, children with mental health or behavioral difficulties do not appear to be included in this classification.
Lack of access to education and dropout differ by gender at every level of education. The gender gap is even more prominent in secondary school, where 7.5 percent of male students are at risk of dropping out compared to 3.7 percent of female students (Rosati, 2022). Male students are under pressure to drop out, likely for different reasons. Poor upper-secondary school-aged boys are sometimes pressured to drop out and enter the labor force to support their family’s finances.
The gross enrollment rate at secondary school was 88.4 percent for girls and 84.1 percent for boys in 2017. The participation in higher education of boys is also lower than that of girls. The enrollment of females and males in tertiary education was 45.5 percent and 38.7 percent, respectively (Anderson & Barrett, 2020). When females enter the labor force, any advantage they have regarding school access and learning results is lost.
In the 2018 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Malaysian girls scored higher in math than boys by seven score points, which is a higher difference than the OECD average. Among the high-scored students, two in five boys reported expecting to be an engineer or a science professional, while one in seven girls reported expecting the same career (OECD, 2019). It is realized that even though girls are good at math and science in the national exams, gender roles and social norms make girls fall behind when it comes to choosing a profession.
Despite the government’s focus on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education, female students do not choose these subjects during university. Gender streaming in university education has been linked to teaching and learning materials used in secondary schools that do not empower girls to study male topics. The social norms tend to overrepresent females as teachers or maids regarding careers (Asadullah, 2020).
Child marriage is another obstacle for women to continue their education. While a person is recognized as a child until the age of 18 according to universal treaties, marriage at the age of 16 to 18 is legal with a license in Malaysia. In this case, girls will most likely drop out of school. The Ministry of Women, Family, and Community Development (MWFCD) has developed a National Strategy and Action Plan to End Child Marriage in 2019, although state-level opposition to a complete prohibition persists. Although Malaysia has implemented several measures to assist comprehensive sex education (CSE), their impact has been restricted by insufficient teacher training and the few hours dedicated to Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH) within the school curriculum (UNICEF, 2019).
Disadvantages of Refugee Children
Refugee children are denied access to the formal education system; therefore, they access education via an informal parallel system of community-based learning centers. The main reason behind this is that all refugees are considered illegal in the country. The lack of legal work for refugees in the country prevents refugee families from earning sufficient income to provide for their children’s basic needs. Moreover, poverty and desperation lead families to allow their children to go out and earn income. Most of the refugee children are forced to beg on the streets (UNHCR, 2022). If there had been a chance for refugees to work legally and support their families adequately, refugee children would have attended school.
According to the data given by UNCR; 44 percent of the refugee children aged 6 to 13 years enrolled in primary school, while this rate dropped drastically in secondary school to 16 percent. Of the 23,823 children that are of school-going age, only 30 percent are enrolled in community learning centers. Preprimary school attendance at the age of 3 to 5 is also only 14 percent. Learning centers are limited and not easily reachable by refugee children. In West Malaysia, there are only 133 learning centers for refugees (UNHCR, 2023).
The learning centers are mostly supported by UNCHR and non-governmental organizations. A most important contribution to non-formal education is made by Sekolah Komuniti Rohingya (SKR) and the United Arakan Institute Malaysia (UAIM) (Palik, 2020). These two community-based organizations are playing an important role for refugee children. Despite all these efforts, non-formal education is not valid for joining the labor force.
Malaysia is an important transit country for refugees. There are nearly 178,990 refugees and asylum seekers registered with UNCHR. 154,080 of them are from Myanmar, including 101,010 Rohingya. This shows the ethnic diversity of refugees coming from Myanmar to Malaysia. Rohingya refugees have been seeking to arrive in the country since the late 1990s. Unfortunately, there are neither refugee camps nor legal recognition of refugee status in Malaysia. Also, a total of 46,000 children refugees under the age of 18 have limited protection (Palik, 2020).
Birthright citizenship is also not provided, which makes refugee children more vulnerable to having a formal education and joining the workforce in their adult lives. Even if getting a formal education is impossible, Rohingya refugees tend to send their female children to non-formal education centers due to their cultural and religious beliefs. Most parents would rather expect girls to accomplish housework at home than attend mixed education with boys.
Myanmar is forcing people to flee, and people in danger are seeking safety in other countries. Malaysia’s deportation of Myanmar asylum-seekers continues, and the remaining refugees still need status to access basic human services. The principle of non-refoulment is very important in international law and is binding on all states.
At the same time, Malaysia is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol. Therefore, the country does not have a legal or administrative framework for managing refugees and has not set any mechanisms to protect and recognize asylum seekers and refugees in its territory.
Group of SMKBBA students and principal En Abdul Gaffar with Malaysian First Astronaut Dr Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor and Kapten Dr Faiz Khaleed. Photo by Wilson Liew.
Covid-19 Challenge
Due to the pandemic, education was disrupted, and the schools suffered from ongoing closings and reopenings. According to a UNICEF/UNFPA study of low-income urban families, 21% of children did not engage in any online learning during the Movement Control Period, while up to 45% failed to learn effectively due to limited access to electronic devices (UNICEF, 2020). Migrant children and children with disabilities were even less likely to have engaged in effective remote learning, and that put a significant risk of school dropouts and rising educational disparities among different groups.
Conclusion
Although Malaysia is a country with a growing economy, there are many aspects of the education sector that need improvement. The main problem in education in the country is that refugee children do not have the right to get a formal education. Without getting a formal education, refugee youngsters do not have a chance to enter the workforce. Also, the quality of education in the country has to be improved. The teacher has to be encouraged to get a higher and better education to be a better educator. The budget must be reallocated to eliminate the gap between urban and rural areas for equal education rights to be achieved. Despite the incentives made by the government in science, girls should be encouraged to enroll in engineering and science programs at university, since girls are better at math on exams. Social norms that put girls behind should be revised to build gender equality and a more qualified workforce for the future. Gender equality for boys is also assured by the government through the new campaigns. In this way, the school dropout rate for boys may be eliminated and girls’ success can be put forward. The growing economy of Malaysia mostly depends on its better-educated students entering the workforce.
Palik, J. (2020). Education for Rohingya Refugee Children in Malaysia – Peace Research Institute Oslo. PRIO Policy Brief. https://www.prio.org/publications/12325
Rosati, F. C. (2022). Can cash transfers reduce child labour? ZA World of Labor.
Yan-Li, S., & Sofian, S. (2018). A Preliminary Study on Leading Special Education in National Schools in Malaysia: Special Education Integrated Programme (SEI P). In The 5th National and 3rd International Conference on Education (NICE), 154-161.
(Country Office Annual Report 2022 Malaysia – 2700, 2023)
Hong Kong’s education system has undergone various influences. The colonization period by the British Empire after the Opium War introduced the English language as the medium of instruction (EMI). The four years of Japanese occupation transformed Hong Kong into the centre of international trade and further emerged as the centre of industry, business, and finance during the period between 1945 and 1997. Consequently, the population increase rapidly with migrants moving from mainland China and other South Asian countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia. Shortage of teachers, unequal distribution of resources and differences in education opportunities were shortly followed as a result. Since the handover of Hong Kong to the People’s Republic of China, the promotion of Chinese-medium instruction (CMI) in the school system has been introduced, alongside an increase in learning the Chinese language (Putonghua known as Mandarin) and culture. New problems occurred with a change in language policies and education reform after 1971, the appealing form of education that meets the needs and abilities of Cantonese-speaking students in the Chinese cultural context neglected ethnic minority students in the Education system.
The problem with the education system in Hong Kong
The article further reveals the problem with Hong Kong’s education reform and the adoption of a new language policy since 1997. Given the background of Hong Kong’s diverse education system, different types of schools were introduced to support the cultural demand. There are three types of schools in Hong Kong recognized by the education bureau: Public local schools (aided schools) that are either operated by the government or by local charitable or religious organizations. Both adopted local curricula where Chinese lessons are mandatory for students, but they can be taught in either English or Chinese as a medium of instruction. However, education is provided free of charge only for Hong Kong permanent residents. Private schools that are not funded by the Hong Kong government or educational sector, provide students and parents with a language choice of English, Chinese/ English and Chinese; International schools on the other hand, have full autonomy in student admission, course content, tuition fees, and deliver curricula that are widely accepted in several countries, such as the International Baccalaureate program. It is a common choice for expatriate or English-speaking families living in Hong Kong.
As of today, the issue of education inequality exists through different schooling systems, portraying social stratification through education opportunities, gender perception and mobility. Further calls for segregation and racial discrimination in society, limiting students’ future career prospects. Thus, by outlining the cause of unequal educational opportunities in Hong Kong, a wide range of recognition is needed to raise public awareness of Hong Kong’s education system.
Inequalities in Education
Education inequality not only includes opportunities to receive education, teaching recourses, faculty expenses, and continuation in participation, but the process of sustaining education opportunities should be equally desirable and concluded in the term. The educational reform in 1971 promoting 6 years of free primary education and the nine-year of compulsory education since 1978 has remarkably increased citizens’ literacy rates and life expectancy. However, while an escalation in the diffusion of education can be seen, quality and education opportunities continue to grow a gap in different groups. For instance, the 6 years of free primary education only applies to Hong Kong permanent residents with a limited number of positions open due to insufficient teaching faculties. Hence, competition rises between government-funded primary and secondary schools. Those who did not get into public local schools choose private or international schools as an alternative. Nonetheless, the quality of education differs between different types of schools. Since private schools are profit-oriented, it is often found that the teaching qualities are lower compared to public schools and international schools. Results in students from public schools or international schools having a sense of superiority among other students, enhancing education differences via grouping and alienation based on different schools and curricula. Therefore, the current contradiction in Hong Kong’s educational reform helps some children move up but keeps others on lower tracks and socializes them to blame for their own lack of success to themselves.
On the other hand, Hong Kong’s colonial culture enforces the idea of the English language as a medium of Instruction that is more beneficial for the reason that it was presented as ‘high culture’ used by members of the dominant class. As an example, the children of high-level government servants were often exposed to situations where they have to interact with colonials through English. Accordingly, students from the dominant class are more likely to do well on examinations and graduate from upper secondary schools and go on to universities. Another social factor that contributed to this fraction is family background. It is evident that the higher the socioeconomic status of the student’s family, the higher his or her academic achievements would be. On that account, the stratification of students in different school systems prolonged the capitalist society into levels of hierarchy, where workers’ children will have lower expectations in their world-view compared to upper-level workers’ children, who will position themselves in a higher innovative position and have richer expectations of themselves. More importantly, due to an influx of migrants from the mainland after the Civil War, newly arrived children (NAC) were a large proportion of the education system. However, most NAC are deprived of fair access to equal opportunity in schooling in EMI schools for the reason that their English level was too weak, hence, they have a hard time catching up with the Hong Kongers. Prevails an averaging issue when they do not have the ability to move on to the next educational level.
Influence of education reform and policy change
The immediate problem after the education reform in 1971 is the increase in the number of enrolments. Nine years of compulsory education prompt a rise in schools and faculty demand. The government of Hong Kong heavily rely on opening new public schools and private schools to meet the requirement. However, due to the fact that there was never a consistent pedagogical education in the history of Hong Kong, not only there is a shortage of teaching staff, but stability in the quality of teaching is also questionable. Most teachers do not have any qualifications in teaching but merely obtained a graduate degree in secondary or college degree Moreover, it pours a great amount of stress on the teaching staff, generating mental health problems in the early stages of the reform. Despite this fact, starting from 1982 onwards, faculty training slowly begins to catch up, raising qualifications to become a teacher. While the problem begins to compromise, the new language policy after the handover in 1997 induces new challenges.
The adoption of the Chinese-oriented language policy in 1997 aimed to promote the national language in the education system under a Chinese cultural context. The majority of students are required to attend Chinese-medium schools in which English is taught as a language subject. Regarding ethnic minorities, which consist nearly 9% of Hong Kong’s population, it became harder to gain proper education in mainstream schools. On top of that, the system of designated schools, which were designated for ethnic minorities in primary and secondary education, was abolished in 2013 for the reason to boost the multicultural educational environment in Hong Kong. Chinese language learning opportunities in former designated schools were limited, therefore the abolishment act strengthens racial discrimination encountered by ethnic minorities. Considering all students in local schools must pass every Chinese examination to advance to the next grade, the lack of opportunity to study Chinese has deprived ethnic minorities of the chance to develop an interest in learning the Chinese language. While private and international schools could be an alternative for admissions, the average tuition fee of over HKD100,000 is hardly a reasonable choice for most parents and immigrant families. This subsequently leads to ethnic minorities being marginalized in the Hong Kong education curriculum. As a result, more young people from ethnic minorities were getting denied in mainstream schools and were getting involved in gangs, creating social segregation from a lack of education attainability.
Nevertheless, while language is becoming a barrier to reaching equal education opportunities, gender segregation has endured since the very beginning. Even though the six years of free primary education and the nine years of compulsory education have reduced family burden and influenced gender to raise education opportunities for women, family’s socioeconomic background and ‘gender segregation’ still manifest limitations for women to achieve equal academic recognition. The traditional gender value in terms of “men outside of the home, women inside” has modelled students’ gender cognition since they were young. After secondary education, gender segregation was enhanced from the subjects they choose. It is widely agreed upon in society that girls should study liberal arts, and boys should study science. The restriction of choices later on influences their advanced studies, career path and societal status. The recognition of their role was further strengthened through literature such as examples from their textbook, sexual division of labour at school, reinforcement of female quality as obedience, passive and quiet, and separation of gender in physical education classes. The stereotyping of gender roles and the unequal sexual structure in education enlarges academic achievement between men, women and third genders. Ignoring gender education as part of the curriculum, especially towards helping students to form their own self-image and realize their potential.
Recommendations for solutions
As an ending remark, the inequality in Hong Kong’s education system could be improved from three different aspects. To sustain the process of education opportunities provided to students, individual-level development is the keystone to the issue. Personal qualities, mutual understanding, humanitarianism and inclusivity should be addressed and respected in the system of teaching, learning and examination. On the curriculum level, more flexible language learning subjects should be adopted into the education structure. Provide ethnic minorities and newly arrived children with language support to give them equal chances in learning abilities. On top of that, neutralization in gender education is consequential to shorten the gap of gender segregation, and encourage equal opportunities for both girls and boys to find the subjects they desire and are passionate about. In addition to language and gender curriculum, recommendations on a structure level are essential, for instance, a more flexible public examination for the compulsory academic subjects, and diversity in teaching staff and faculty members are needed to approach social justice and equality.
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Located on the southern slopes of the Himalayan Mountains, combined with a vibrant culture and rich history, Nepal is known as a country with never-ending peace and love. However, such a beautiful country was only rated as a lower-middle-income country by the World Bank in its newest country classifications by income level. To achieve its aim of achieving middle-income status by 2030, education is of paramount importance. According to the data collected by the World Bank, Nepal has come a long way to raise its adult literacy rate from 21% in 1981 to 71% in 2021 and its youth literacy rate from 30% in 1981 to 94% in 2021. However, despite the promising increase, educational challenges persist in Nepal, hindering its national progress in providing accessible and quality education to its citizens.
Historical Background
Education in Nepal has a long history, starting from the time of the Gurukula system, where learning was based on apprenticeship. British colonial rule in Nepal brought significant changes to the education system, leading to the establishment of modern schools. Following independence, the Nepalese government implemented reforms such as compulsory education and the creation of teacher training institutions. In 1853, the Durbar School was established, which marked the start of formal schooling. During the Rana regime (1846–1951), education was confined to the ruling class, as it was seen as a threat to the autocratic regime. Nepal witnessed the expansion of its education system after the fall of the Rana dynasty and the transition to democratic governance in the 1950s. Later, in the 1960s, the introduction of compulsory education made primary education (grades 1–8) free and mandatory for all children. In the 1980s, the government extended the policy of free education to the secondary level (lower secondary education: grades 9 and 10, and upper secondary education: grades 10 and 11). In the 1990s, several universities were established, expanding access to higher education throughout Nepal.
Students in grade 6 at Shree Dharmasthali Lower Secondary School, Pokhara, Nepal. Photo by Jim Holmes for AusAID
Underlying Barriers
Despite the progress and efforts made by the government, the education system still faces a set of challenges that result from a set of barriers, namely sociocultural barriers, financial barriers, and infrastructural barriers.
Sociocultural barriers
In Nepali society, discrimination based on gender and caste is deeply rooted. Nowadays, sons are still preferred over girls for a lot of Nepali families. Beyond this, early marriage and the idea that girls are viewed as someone else’s property all hinder education for girls, while in reality, “investing in girls’ education transforms communities, countries, and the entire world”, Although Nepal declared caste-based discrimination unconstitutional in 1951 and criminalized discriminatory practices in 1991, caste-based discrimination persists despite the above-mentioned legislative countermeasures. The worst case is for girls and young women belonging to disadvantaged caste groups, as they suffer from intersectionality.
Besides, language, as a result of culture, also appears to be a barrier to education. According to the most recent Nepal Census in 2011, there are 123 languages spoken as mother tongue; among them, Nepali is spoken as mother tongue by 44.6% of the population. According to data collected in 2017, only 24 languages are utilized for the development and publication of textbooks at the basic education level, indicating that students whose mother tongue is not one of the 24 languages are disadvantaged.
Financial barriers
Although the Nepali government has made secondary education free, the allocated funds are not sufficient to cover the needed funds. Between stopping student enrollment and raising funds from the guardian, some public schools choose to raise funds from the guardian. There are other hidden costs, such as those related to school uniforms, bags, stationery, Fuor other supplies. In such a way, poverty becomes a barrier to education.
Infrastructural Barriers
The school facilities in Nepal are not sufficient to meet the privacy and safety needs of girls. According to the data collected by UNICEF in 2018, “Twenty percent of government schools lack improved water and sanitation facilities, with an additional 19 percent lacking separate toilets for girls and boys and menstrual hygiene management facilities”.
Moreover, the quality of education and quantity of schools in Nepal are highly uneven. The disparities in teacher-student ratios across Nepal are major and generally high, resulting in overcrowded classrooms and an inability to provide child-centered and quality education. The lack of well-trained teachers also leads to poor-quality education. Besides, inadequate school monitoring also makes it hard to ensure quality education.
Further, as observed by Human Rights Watch, children with disabilities face various forms of obstacles to inclusive education. The physical accessibility of most schools is rather limited, making it hard for children with disabilities to enter school, classrooms, and toilets. Children with disabilities are not well accommodated, as aides to support children in need to participate in mainstream education are far from enough. There is no academic curriculum for children with intellectual disabilities. There is also a lack of reasonable accommodations for examinations.
Persisting Challenges
As a result of the above-described barriers, the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology in Nepal, which manages the Nepali education system, admits in its School Education Sector Plan (2022/23-2031/32) that:
“The education system of Nepal faces a number of challenges, often similar to those encountered by other developing countries. For example, in terms of access and participation, 4.9 percent of children aged 5–12 years remain out of school as they are unable to access basic education. Challenges remain in completion, with 76.6 percent completing basic education.”
“The enrollment of children with disabilities remains far below the proportion in their respective total populations.”
“A large proportion of out-of-school and dropout children and those who repeat classis made up of the poorest, most vulnerable children and children with disabilities, concentrated in certain regions of the country.
“The lack of adequate, competent, and motivated teachers in schools poses a major further challenge in terms of improving the quality of learning.
“Some of the problems that have been observed are lack of effective and robust coordination and cooperation mechanisms and accountability systems between the Federal Government, Provincial Governments and Local Levels; lack of adequate human resources and capacity for education planning and implementation at Local Level; lack of strong leadership of the head teacher in school; lack of an effective system of accountability for student learning.
Way Forward
To tackle these barriers and challenges and to develop an education system where citizens can enjoy the right to acquire relevant and quality education comparable to regional and international standards, the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology has set objectives to develop an accessible and qualified education system for all children and an effective monitoring, coordinating, and collaborating system. Besides, the ministry also set an objective to strengthen alternative pathways in education. The objectives are supported by a series of strategies.
To conclude, through the decades, the education system of Nepal has changed tremendously, and Nepal has indeed made tremendous efforts regarding increasing the literacy of its citizens. However, Nepal still faces several forms of barriers and challenges, which are admitted by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology. Such barriers and challenges include deep-rooted discrimination based on gender and caste, insufficient accommodation for people with different mother tongues, poverty-related difficulties, low quality of education, a lack of basic infrastructure for girls and children with disabilities in school, as well as a lack of a school monitoring and accountability system. To address these obstacles and difficulties, the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology has set a set of objectives and strategies to achieve its vision and mission.
7 Educational System in Nepal: Structure, Challenges and Solutions.
8 P. Neupane, Policy Framework for Education Development in Nepal, International Education Studies, Vol.13, No.1,(2020).
9 J. B. Sapkota, D. B. Paudel, P. Neupane, & R.B. Thapa,. Preference for sex of children among women in Nepal. Global Social Welfare, 6(2), 69-78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40609-018-0117-9(2019).
17 United Nations General Assembly, Visit to Nepal, Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, Oliver De Schutter, UN doc. A/HRC/50/38/Add.2 (2022).
J. B. Sapkota, D. B. Paudel, P. Neupane, & R.B. Thapa,. Preference for sex of children among women in Nepal. Global Social Welfare, 6(2), 69-78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40609-018-0117-9(2019)
United Nations General Assembly, Visit to Nepal, Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, Oliver De Schutter, UN doc. A/HRC/50/38/Add.2 (2022).
The Education Monitoring Report 2022, released by UNESCO, estimates new data that shows that among adults, 83% of women and 90% of men are literate, with a 7% gender gap. As a result, a total of 771 million adults around the world lack basic literacy skills (Ahmed & Khawar, 2022). According to UNESCO’s Institute of Statistics, 2023 data shows there are nearly 773 illiterate adults (Literacy | UNESCO UIS, 2023). Current literacy data are often gathered by population censuses or household surveys in which the respondent or head of the household declares whether they can read and write a brief, simple statement about one’s everyday life in any written language.
There has been an increase in school attendance since education was adopted as a human right. When the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted in 1948, with a world population of 2.4 billion, 48% of the population had access to school (UNESCO, 2021). When the global population hit 8 billion in 2020, school enrollment had increased to nearly 90% (Statista, 2022).
These rates indicate that primary school attendance is increasing around the world. While 773 million people are illiterate, other parts of the world the education is more digitalized and going through higher education researchers. This distinction among illiteracy and the higher level education is very upsetting. There must more support in the regions and communities who are not even basic requirements of education.
In today’s world, education is not limited to a single life period but rather a never-ending process in every age. Education is crucial to catching up with the world challenges to achieve economic prosperity, individual development, and social cohesion. Everyone must be able to access educational opportunities throughout the entirety of their lifetime.
The interconnected global challenges require everyone, regardless of age, to pursue lifelong learning. Most importantly, adult education has a great impact on the new generations and the global development that young talent could bring. To raise children with a higher awareness of world problems and greater ability to find solutions to the new world challenges, we need educated adults.
In November 2021, UNESCO’s model Futures of Education report, “Reimagining Our Futures Together: A New Social Contract for Education” was published. The right to lifelong learning was also reinforced at the “Transforming Education Summit” in September 2022, following the UN Secretary-General’s appeal for a formal acknowledgement of a universal entitlement to lifelong learning and reskilling in his report “Our Common Agenda” (UN, 2022).
UNESCO’s recommendations and aims are explained as follows:
“The aim of adult learning and education is to equip people with the necessary capabilities to exercise and realize their rights and take control of their destinies. It promotes personal and professional development, thereby supporting more active engagement by adults with their societies, communities, and environments. It fosters sustainable and inclusive economic growth and decent work prospects for individuals. It is, therefore, a crucial tool in alleviating poverty, improving health and well-being, and contributing to sustainable learning societies.” (UNESCO, Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education, 2022).
The current situation of adult education today
Gender disparities in enrollment and attendance have declined during the last two decades. The gender gap in adult literacy is the widest in Central and Southern Asia, followed by Sub-Saharan Africa (Ahmed & Khawar, 2022). According to UNESCO’s latest Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education, there has also been progress, notably in the participation of women, who need adult education the most.
However, the report shows other disadvantaged and vulnerable groups, such as Indigenous learners, rural populations, migrants, older citizens, people with disabilities, or prisoners, all of whom are deprived of expected literacy levels. Around 60% of countries reported no improvement in the educational involvement of people with disabilities, migrants, or convicts. Rural population involvement has decreased in 24% of the surveyed countries. In addition, the involvement of older people has fallen in 24% of the 159 nations surveyed (UNESCO, 2022).
Coping Strategies: how to Increase Adult Literacy?
UNESCO’s latest Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education provides some hints on how to increase adult literacy. There are several tools and solutions that may be realized. Firstly, spreading awareness among individuals about the most vulnerable groups who are mostly excluded from adult education is a way to mitigate the lack of adult literacy. Migrants, indigenous people, older citizens, and people with disabilities are the most vulnerable. Awareness, providing funds by NGOs and IGOs is a very powerful tool for helping vulnerable groups. In addition, making campaigns could be very beneficial.
Secondly, the solutions lie on government action in terms of monetary policy. Countries must increase their investment in adult learning and education and spend a minimum of 6% of the GDP on education. Only 22 of the 146 countries spend 4% or more of their public education budget on adult learning and education, while 28 spend less than 0.4% (UNESCO, Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education, 2022).
Thirdly, cooperation between civil society, the private sector, and government bodies in accordance with education at all levels is essential. In recent years, improvement and progress have been made in many countries thanks to partnerships between different actors to reach adults who lack learning in the last years.
As a student at the University of Florence, pursuing a Master’s degree in International Relations and European Student in Italy, I am an enthusiast of human rights especially in supporting education rights that would create a better world for everyone. I apply my academic knowledge and skills to practical research work in the field of human rights.
References
Ahmed, A., & Khawar, U. (2022, April 28). 771m adults lacked basic literacy skills: Unesco – World – DAWN.COM. Dawn., from https://www.dawn.com/news/1687178
Education worldwide – statistics & facts. (2022, October 11). Statista, from https://www.statista.com/topics/7785/education-worldwide/#topicOverview
Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education. (2022, June 15). UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. from https://www.uil.unesco.org/en/grale5
Literacy | UNESCO UIS. (n.d.). UNESCO Institute for Statistics. from https://uis.unesco.org/en/topic/literacy
Reimagining our futures together: a new social contract for education. (2021). UNESCO Digital Library, from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379707.locale=en
The right to lifelong learning: Why adult education matters. (2022, June 15). UNESCO.org, 2023, from https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/right-lifelong-learning-why-adult-education-matters
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