Educational challenges in Kosovo

Written by Veronica Grazzi

Located in the center of the Balkans, Kosovo is mostly known for its turbulent historical and political events. With its 1.8 million inhabitants, Kosovo has experienced many conflicts and declarations of independence, including changes in government and policy shifts. After separating from Serbia in 2008, the country faces numerous challenges in education, where a lot of obstacles prevent the creation of a consistent and inclusive system.

Because of the conflict, international intervention and post-conflict funds were channeled through the country through the international UN Interim Mission to Kosovo (UNMIK). Education was perceived as one of the ways to contain the conflict between Serbian and Kosovo Albanian imaginaries of Kosovo’s nationhood, so the international community opted for a divided education system.

Today, Kosovo is experiencing substantial reforms in its higher education system. This transformation includes the establishment and growth of higher education institutions, including nine public and twenty-two private universities. While significant improvements have been made, persistent issues continue to hinder the development of a robust and inclusive educational system.

Ethnic Divides and Integration

“One component which is normally not missing from any narrative of a nation’s history is that of a nation’s origin or foundation.”

The discursive construction of National Identity, 2009

This citation very well applies to Kosovo; the basis for the current nationalistic discourse in Serbia and Kosovo lies in the various historical interpretations of the contested area of Kosovo.

The society in Kosovo is divided along ethnic lines, and this is evident also in Kosovo’s education system. Up until 1980, Kosovo’s educational system was a component of the old Yugoslavian system. The 1999 Kosovo War left strong antagonism between Albanian and Serbs communities, hampering the creation of an integrated and harmonious educational environment.

More specifically, to avoid further clashes, while Kosovo Serb pupils are taught in schools overseen by the Serbian government, Kosovo Albanian students and other non-Serb minorities attend state institutions of the Republic of Kosovo. The two groups not only follow two distinct curricula, but also they don’t interact or communicate with one another. This results in an obstacle for collaboration among the younger generations, and more in general for the rebuilding of solid peaceful-coexistence process.

Evidence suggests that the existing national curricula in the education systems of Serbia and Kosovo are motivated by sociopolitical and nationalistic ideologies that legitimize the narrative of contested victimization. Both systems do not objectively address historical events, present only one side of the story, and actively work to promote a positive image of the corresponding ethnic group.

Especially in universities, the division follows the political lines and becomes stronger, with opposite visions over the future policies.

Inclusive education

In the Kosovo Education Strategy Plan 2021-2025 launched by the Ministry of Education, providing access to equal and quality education is not only a priority but also a challenge.

Kosovo is among the Balkan countries where girls and boys aged 0-6 have fewer opportunities to attend pre-school education. According to research published by KOMF – a coalition of 29 NGOs dedicated to child protection – only 4.8 per cent of children between the ages of 0 and 4 attend nurseries or kindergartens. The percentage rises to 90 per cent in the 5-6 age group.

According to UNMIK, in 2019 38,000 children with disabilities were not attending schools. Social norms are the first step in this process, as they have the tendency to stigmatize individuals with disabilities. From there, structural barriers like inadequate transportation, inaccessible classrooms, and a lack of specialized support follow. UNMIK reported interesting data about which are the causes according to the young population; society’s mentality (39%), lack of cash benefits (22%), lack of services (14%), and lack of inclusive legislation and policies (14%).

Across all educational levels, inclusive education in Kosovo faces numerous obstacles. Rural locations have low pre-school attendance because of perceived travel distance and indifference. In an analysis promoted by the Kosovo 2.0 portal, it was revealed that most kindergartens are located in cities and few are located in rural areas. This is also partly related to the lack of coherent and coordinated actions between central and local authorities. There are no public transport services to take girls and boys to the kindergartens closest to their residence.

Increasing parent awareness, increasing the number of pre-school classes offered, and enhancing transportation services are some ways that can be used to increase participation. Even though basic education (grades 1–9) is required, up to 25% of students drop out, especially in villages that have satellite schools. Travel distance, females’ security concerns, and budgetary limitations are obstacles. Enrollment rates for secondary education are lower in rural areas than in metropolitan ones, indicating a preference for gymnasiums over vocational institutions. Vocational education reform is essential, and household finances and travel distance have a role in secondary school selection.

With a few notable exceptions, like the prosperous agricultural school in Lipjan, the rural economy, which has been influenced by previous industrial collapse and conflict, affects interest in agricultural vocational schools. Sustaining interest in hands-on training programs and matching educational offerings to changing rural economic demands are continuing difficulties.

High Dropout Rates and Unemployment

High dropout rates are a problem in Kosovo, especially for secondary school. Youth unemployment is a result of both economic difficulties and a mismatch between the skills taught in schools and those required by the job market. This problem is made worse by the poor options for vocational training, which leaves many young people without the skills needed to find work and feeds the cycle of economic stagnation. Kosovo’s economic problems, such as high jobless rates and a faltering economy, have an impact on the educational system. The availability of educational materials, teacher pay, and the quality of education can all be impacted by a lack of funds and resources.

Adults in rural areas report having less access to education, while non-formal education is mostly concentrated in urban areas and occurs occasionally. In order to close the educational gap that exists for adults and youth who are not in school, lifelong learning programs, government backing, and private sector engagement in capacity building and self-employment promotion in rural areas are required. Continued funding from NGOs is essential to keeping up capacity-building initiatives in these communities.

Public Spending in Education

The state budget dedicated to pre-school education, according to a recent Kosovo 2.0 study, has not changed much in recent years. It increased from €14 million in 2017 to €17 million in 2019 and then, in 2020, it dropped to €16 million. In its annual report on Kosovo in 2020, the European Commission pointed out that the shortcomings of Kosovo’s education system – also highlighted by the PISA tests – were also to be attributed to the low inclusion of children in pre-school education.

The demands of the labor market are not being sufficiently met by the educational system. Compared to middle-income nations with similar age demographics, Kosovo invests 4.7% of its GDP on education; nonetheless, the amount spent on elementary and secondary education per student is comparatively low. This is mostly due to the high student-teacher ratio, which is twice as high as the EU average, and the high cost of teacher wages.

Primary school enrollment rates are high, at 96%, and secondary school enrollment rates are high, at 88.1%. However, low PISA scores and relatively high unemployment rates for postsecondary graduates (19.2% in Q2 2018) when compared to the EU indicate deficiencies in the relevance and caliber of education. In the early stages of reforming the vocational education system, the condition of vocational education training (VET) schools is being examined. Nowadays, research expenditures account for a small 0.1% of GDP. Following the inauguration of a new Ministry of Innovation in 2018, two regional innovation centers were awarded a grant of EUR 1.1 million for specialized labs and equipment.

Possible Government Actions

Some improvements can be noted in the field of education. The enrollment rate at all levels is increasing, but it is still significantly below the average, and a lot of young Roma and Ashkali do not reach higher levels of education. In this academic year, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology has increased the number of scholarships for Roma, Ashkali (and Egyptian) students from 500 to 600, and has also allocated funds to learning centers that were previously primarily funded by donors.

Promoting Inclusive Education: The government should encourage integrated classrooms that bring together pupils from many ethnic origins as a proactive way to promote inclusivity. The younger generation may become more united as a society and help heal divisions through cultural exchange and shared learning opportunities. Kosovo should prioritize implementing an inclusive education system in order to shield susceptible youth from radicalization. It has advanced somewhat, as seen by the development of a manual for instructors and the thorough training of educators (refer to the section on education). It is one of the active participants in the project for the Western Balkan Counter-Terrorism (WBCTi).

Investing in Infrastructure: A focused investment plan is necessary to address the gaps in infrastructure and resources. Funds allocated for modernizing classrooms, supplying instructional materials, and augmenting educational resources as a whole will help to build a more just and efficient educational system in both urban and rural regions.

Revamping Vocational Training Programs: Redesigning vocational training programs should be the government’s primary priority in order to address high dropout rates and youth unemployment. By matching these programs to industry demands and working together to offer real-world, hands-on experience, we can better prepare students for the workforce, which will lower unemployment rates and promote economic growth.

Building a robust educational system requires addressing historical differences, raising educational standards, encouraging inclusion, and addressing financial limits. Kosovo can set the stage for a society that is centered on knowledge, cooperation, and shared prosperity by making investments in its youth. Although the road ahead is still long, Kosovo can improve its educational system and create the groundwork for a better future by working together.

Cover Image by: Ben Wicks, 2018 via Unsplash

References

Educational Challenges in Djibouti

Written by Priscilla Thindwa

Education is a human right, not a privilege. This means education is legally guaranteed for all human beings without discrimination and for this reason, states are obliged to “protect, respect, and fulfil the right to education”.i In instances where states violate or deprive their citizens of the right to education, they are expected to be held accountable for such violations.

As a member of the United Nations (UN) and the African Union (AU), the Republic of Djibouti, has ratified several human rights conventions. Among these is the Universal Declaration on Human Rights which was adopted in 1948. As proclaimed in Article 26, everyone has the right to education. As signatory, Djibouti has made legally binding international commitments to adhere to the standards including protecting and respecting the right to education. In addition to its obligations through international commitments, the Constitution of Djibouti emphasises the right to education as an essential element for growth and human development. Despite this emphasis, Djibouti has not been able to guarantee the right to education to everyone in the country. This article will address the challenges standing in the way of the right to education, but also highlight some good practices.

Djibouti’s Educational Landscape

As a former French colonial state, its education system is based on the French system with French and Arabic as instruction languages. Compulsory education runs for nine years: primary school lasts five years and middle school lasts four years.ii For primary school, enrolment rates were under the regional average in 2020. The enrolment rate of girls in the appropriate age group for primary school was 65 percent in comparison to the regional average of almost 80 percent. For boys, the enrolment rate was 68 percent in comparison to the regional average of 81 percent.iii In 2022, 42 percent of children in the primary school age were out of school.iv

Secondary school lasts three years and thereafter, students can attend skills training college (TVET) or the University of Djibouti for at least three years.v While for primary school Djibouti does not reach the regional average, the gross enrolment rate for secondary schooling exceeds the regional average. In 2022, an enrolment rate of 57 percent was reported. According to the Oxford Business Group, this is a huge improvement as in 2001, enrolment was only 16 percent.vi For tertiary education, Djibouti again does not catch up with the region: total enrolment is only 5 percent.vii

Despite the fact that Djibouti underperforms in primary and tertiary education on the regional level, the Oxford Business Group reports clear improvements. One improvement mentioned earlier are the enrolment rates in secondary school. In addition, while enrolment rates in primary school are still below the regional average, there has been great improvement over the last two decades. The number of girls not attending primary school fell from 42,620 in 2001 to 16,872 in 2021, while the number of boys fell from 39,088 to 15,284 over the same period. Another improvement in the student-teacher ratio from 34 students per teacher in 2008 to 29 in 2018.viii

Such improvements are partly owed to the the Education Action Programme 2017-19 (Plan d’Action de l’Education, PAE). Under this programme, several results were achieved including developing a preschool strategy and recognising second-chance education centres and mainstreaming of life skills and citizenship education. Another important aspect of the programme was the inclusion of refugee children into the national education system. Such developments have been important in working towards achieving quality and accessible education for all in Djibouti.ix

Source: Global Partnership for Education | Via Flickr

Challenges Associated with Education

One of the challenges has already been noted: many children remain out of school. Other challenges include inequitable access to education, low quality of education, low availability of learning materials, and disparities due to gender, geographic areas, and socio-economic status.

Inequitable Access to Education, Low Availability of Learning Materials and Lack of Schools

Three of the main challenges facing the education sector in Djibouti are the unequal access to education, low availability of learning materials, and the lack of schools. These challenges disproportionately affect children in rural areas, especially girls, migrants, refugees, disabled children, and children on the street.x According to a 2020 report by the Ministry of National Education and Vocational Training (MENFOP), an estimated 50.5 percent of students lived within 1 km of a school, meaning the other 49.5 percent lives further away. 3.3 percent resided further than 10 km from their nearest school. Disparities due to geographic areas and socio-economic status continue to hinder the progress in improving education systems in the country.xi

With regards to refugees, Djibouti hosted 31,000 refugees and asylum seekers at the beginning of 2022. This number remained stable in 2023.xii Because of this high number, providing education for refugee children is essential. For most refugee children, language was the main barrier for accessing education. To counter such barriers, the government has translated the national curriculum into English and Arabic and has trained teachers in local languages of Afar and Somali. Also, the government recognises education previously provided to refugee students in other countries which has made it easier for them to take the Djibouti Baccalaureate examination.xiii

Additionally, as a way of making education inclusive and accessible for all, the government has developed the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) sector whose main goal is to alleviate unemployment within the country. Such trainings economically empower those from disadvantaged households who cannot afford university costs to attain skills. This shows the government has taken steps to bridge access to education between the rich and poor.xiv

Low Quality of Education

Despite progress made in recent years, low quality of education remains a challenge for Djibouti. For instance, based on the grade 5 assessments conducted in 3 subjects (French, Mathematics and Arabic), the success rate for children at the end of 2017-2018 academic year was 71.8 percent. In 2016-2017, the ratio was pegged at 64 percent.xv In light of such lower quality of education, the government has been working collaboratively with agencies such as UNICEF in order to improve the quality of education in the country.

Gender Disparities

Similar to most African countries, the gaps between male and female students in school attendance is persistent. The number of girls’ school drop outs is usually higher than that of boys, and girls are in rural areas are particularly affected. In comparison to rural areas, urban areas show an increase in gender equity in primary, secondary and tertiary education.xvi

Djibouti is observed to have made progress: as noted before, there was a large increase in the number of girls attending primary school between 2001 and 2021. Even though gender inequality is still persistent, national policies and strategies promoting women’s rights and gender equality have contributed to changes in attitude towards girls’ education. Another intervention aiding progress is the revision of teaching and learning materials in which images defying traditional depiction of women and girls in society are now displayed.xvii On this note, the government of Djibouti has made some considerable progress in bridging the gender gap in access to education, albeit slow.

Source: Global Partnership for Education Via Flickr

The Covid-19 Pandemic

Similar to elsewhere, the COVID-19 pandemic had grave consequences for education. As a way to limit the spread of the virus, measures such as containment were put in place in most countries around the globe. Such measures restricted children and adolescents from going to school and any other public facilities, which exacerbated already existing inequities in many countries. In Djibouti, the government closed down schools in April 2020. All activities were suspended until August 2020.xviii

To ensure students continued to have access to their education, MENFOP developed a distance-learning programme for both rural and urban areas. This was done, for example, through televising and radio courses as well as providing the learning materials on internet platforms. Moreover, booklets and paper materials for rural communities and refugees were provided.xix Also, through funding from the World Bank, the government supported improvement in access to remote learning and provided electronic devices and internet connectivity to schools across the country.xx In addition, the programs focused on vulnerable students, including children living in remote areas, refugees, and girls.xxi

While the programme did not reach every students, it is considered successful: 86 percent of students had access to online learning, of which 45% were girls, 18% lived in remote areas and 5% were refugees. Also, many children returned to school after schools reopened. With support of UNICEF, a campaign was launched to engage the community and parents, leading to positive results. In addition, students who experienced high levels of learning loss were offered remedial programmes.xxii Thus, even though the COVID-19 pandemic posed as a challenge within the education sector, the government together with international organisations was able to alleviate the effects caused by creating alternative ways to accessing education.

Conclusion

As discussed above, different factors continue to hinder full enjoyment of the right to education by people living in Djibouti. Many children continue to not attend schools, and low access to educational institutions remains a problem. This is compounded by low quality of education and low availability of learning materials. Such challenges are exacerbated by inequitable access to education, as well as disparities due to gender, geographic areas, and socio-economic status.

Despite aforementioned challenges, the government of Djibouti undertakes efforts to increase access to and coverage of education, especially in rural areas and for refugees. Also, its improvement in reducing gender disparities should be commended. With regards to the Covid-19 pandemic, the government managed to mitigate the negative impacts of the pandemic by providing alternative learning avenues and equipment. The involvement of local communities and parents can be praised.

References
  • Donaher, M. (2023). USAID Djibouti’s Early Grade Reading Activity (DEGRA) Is Transforming Gender Norms in the Classroom and Beyond. Education Links. https://www.edu-links.org/learning/usaid-djiboutis-early-grade-reading-activity-degra-transforming-gender-norms-classroom-and#:~:text=While%20in%20urban%20areas%2C%20gender,to%20drop%20out%20of%20school.
  • Hamlaoui, Souad. (2021). Djibouti: An opportunity to transform education through enhanced sector dialogue during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Partnership Education.
  • https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/djibouti-opportunity-transform-education-through-enhanced-sector-dialogue-during-covid-19
  • Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why education in Djibouti is more accessible across the country.Oxford Business Group.
  • https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/djibouti/2023-report/health-education/greater-reach-progress-is-being-made-to-make-education-more-accessible-nationwide-in-both-rural-and-urban-areas-overview/
  • Reliefweb. (2023). Djbouti: Operational Update. Reliefweb. https://reliefweb.int/report/djibouti/djibouti-operational-update-october-2023#:~:text=The%20Republic%20of%20Djibouti%20remains,asylum%20seekers%20from%20neighboring%20countries.
  • Right to Education. (2023). Understanding Education as a Right. Right to Education.
  • https://www.right-to education.org/page/understanding-education-right
  • The World Bank. (2015). Djibouti Needs to Build and Expand on Achievements to Educate the Next Generation. The World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/02/04/djibouti-needs-to-build-and-expand-on-achievements-to-educate-the-next-generation
  • UNICEF Djibouti. (2019). Djibouti: Education Thematic Report. UNICEF. https://open.unicef.org/sites/transparency/files/2020-06/DJIBOUTI-TP4-2018.pdf
  • USAID. (N.d.). Djibouti: Education. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/education
  • USAID. (N.d.). Djibouti: Gender. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/gender
  • i Right to Education. (2023). Understanding Education as a Rights. Right to Education. https://www.right-to-education.org/page/understanding-education-
  • ii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group. https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/djibouti/2023-report/health-education/greater-reach-progress-is-being-made-to-make-education-more-accessible-nationwide-in-both-rural-and-urban-areas-overview/
  • iii USAID. (N.d.). Djibouti: Gender. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/gender
  • iv USAID. (N.d). Djibouti: Education. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/education
  • v Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country”. Oxford Business Group.
  • vi Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • vii USAID. (N.d.). “Djibouti: Education”. USAID.
  • viii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • ix Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • x UNICEF Djibouti. (2019). Djibouti: Education Thematic Report. UNICEF.
  • https://open.unicef.org/sites/transparency/files/2020-06/DJIBOUTI-TP4-2018.pdf
  • xi Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • xii Reliefweb. 2023. Djbouti: Operational Update. Reliefweb. https://reliefweb.int/report/djibouti/djibouti-operational-update-october-2023#:~:text=The%20Republic%20of%20Djibouti%20remains,asylum%20seekers%20from%20neighboring%20countries.
  • xiii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • xiv Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • xv UNICEF Djibouti. (2019). Djibouti: Education Thematic Report. UNICEF.
  • xvi M. Donaher. (2023). USAID Djibouti’s Early Grade Reading Activity (DEGRA) Is Transforming Gender Norms in the Classroom and Beyond. Education Links. https://www.edu-links.org/learning/usaid-djiboutis-early-grade-reading-activity-degra-transforming-gender-norms-classroom-and#:~:text=While%20in%20urban%20areas%2C%20gender,to%20drop%20out%20of%20school.
  • xvii M. Donaher. (2023). USAID Djibouti’s Early Grade Reading Activity (DEGRA) Is Transforming Gender
  • xviii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • xx Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
  • xxi Souad Hamlaoui. (2021). Djibouti: An opportunity to transform education through enhanced sector dialogue during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Partnership Education. https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/djibouti-opportunity-transform-education-through-enhanced-sector-dialogue-during-covid-19
  • xxii Souad Hamlaoui. (2021). Djibouti: An opportunity to transform education through enhanced sector dialogue during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Partnership Education.

Educational Challenges in French Polynesia

French Polynesia/ Tahaa: School Bus via Flickr, photographer: Enrico Silva

Written by Luzi Maj Leonhardt for Broken Chalk

French Polynesia represents a French overseas collective and consists of 121 islands in the eastern South Pacific. The islands comprise the five archipelagos, Society Islands, Tuamotu Islands, Marquesas Islands, Gambier Islands, and Austral Islands. The island of Tahiti and the capital Papeete, represent the political and economic centre of the country. Together, the size of the overall territory can be compared to the size of Europe. French Polynesia has approximately 300,000 inhabitants. 

French Polynesia was colonized by France in 1880 and became a French overseas territory in 1949. Since then, France granted more and more autonomy to local authorities, while the 2004 ‘Organic Law’ played a significant role in the country’s self-government. Consequently, since 2013, French Polynesia has been officially listed as a self-governing territory by the United Nations. 

The political system present in French Polynesia is a parliamentary democracy, with a 57-seat assembly and parliamentary elections in five-year terms. The current president is Moetai Brotherson, who won elections in May 2023 and, for the first time since 2004, belongs to a pro-independence party. However, according to local experts, this will most likely not result in a political referendum, but the high voter turnouts are due to dissatisfaction with the previous government during Covid 19. 

In general, the president of the French Republic is also the head of state of French Polynesia, which reveals the strong influence France remains to have on the economic and political development.

French influence in French Polynesia

Historically, for many people, the French administration in French Polynesia is strongly connected to the 193 nuclear tests conducted by the French state between 1966 and 1996. These areal and underground tests had severe consequences for the environment, health, and economy, and victims struggle to obtain compensation and recognition until today. Even though, in 2021, compensation procedures reached new importance in the Macron administration, the French government still denied their minimalization of the impacts of contaminations during the project.

Nowadays, the economy of French Polynesia is rooted in tourism; approximately 68% of Polynesians work in the service sector. Therefore, the Covid-19 crisis and lockdown had severe consequences for the economy. Additionally, the country relies on the cultivation of black pearls and subsidies. The latter is mainly based on financial support by France to their overseas territory, which makes up 30% of the country’s GDP. These spending are distributed equally on the jurisdictions of the territorial government and French state-based responsibilities. French Polynesia reached autonomy in most local affairs and regional relations over time. However, France retains responsibilities in competencies such as law enforcement, defence, and education.

The educational system in French Polynesia

The French Polynesian educational system is regulated by local authorities and the French government. The state finances public education and subsidizes private institutions, operated by the church. Thereby, France holds key responsibilities in budget management and organization of state exams, such as teacher certifications and high-school finals.

The general school system is similar to the system in place in France, complying with French standards, including the curriculum. However, since the 2004 ‘Organic Law’, local authorities have gained more say and autonomy in the educational sector. This led to slight changes in the curriculum to match local needs and take historical, geographical, cultural, and social realities into account. 

In French Polynesia, education is compulsory until age sixteen, whereby primary education falls between the ages of five and twelve, while secondary education finishes at age seventeen. However, many children fail to comply due to language barriers, economic struggles, and cultural differences. As a form of higher education, the ‘Université de la Polynésie française’ was founded in 1987 in Outumaoro, Punaauia, Tahiti. The university is a non-profit higher education institution and has displayed a significant increase in students since 1999. In 2019, the number of students rose to 2898. Additionally, several technical schools offer special programs such as hotel business, service, and teaching. There are also different adult educational programs. 

The language of instruction in formal educational institutions is French. However, with new efforts of local adjustments and accessibility, the incorporation of the Tahitian language as a language of instruction makes up on average one in seven courses.

Language barrier in the educational system

French Polynesia has always been a multilingual country, with five different local languages in the archipelagos. Tahitian is the language of the islands, however, its recognition as an official language alongside French only took place in the 1980s. The formal recognition of indigenous languages has long been neglected and still plays a role in the contemporary educational system. 

Since the beginning of French influence, the language in the educational system has been French. This also means that until French became more popular in society, children started their academic careers in a foreign language. Especially on smaller islands, people mainly spoke Polynesian as their everyday language of socialization. The former educational system was not very tolerant towards indigenous languages and even formally banned Tahitian in schools for some time. However, in the early 2000s, France extended their early childhood and foreign language promotion as part of the EU’s multilingual education movement. This led to meaningful changes in language learning policies in French Polynesia. The program aimed to provide culturally responsive education and meant the inclusion of the Tahitian language in schools. 

Nevertheless, Tahitian only makes up a couple of hours per week, so nationalist groups proceed to fight for the equal incorporation of indigenous languages in the educational sector. Even though, the literacy rate on Tahiti is 98%, many smaller islands struggle with the educational system provided by the French administration, leading to high dropout rates. Education is compulsory until age sixteen, but only 20% of the students in French Polynesia, mainly from outer islands, finish elementary school. One reason for this is language difficulties, which lower the accessibility to the educational system. 

Additionally, English has become increasingly important over the last decade, especially in the tourism sector. Therefore, it was integrated into the elementary school curriculum in 2010 as a foreign language after a pilot project of five years. Unfortunately, this policy change faced severe difficulties due to a lack of teachers with sufficient language competencies. 

Although the educational system in French Polynesia mirrors the French educational system, statistical data conducted in elementary schools reveals a deficiency in the academic success of French Polynesian students. Experts connect this deficiency directly to the socio-linguistic context and emphasize the dependency of further professional opportunities for the students on educational success.

Unemployment 

French Polynesia faces growing challenges of social and economic inequalities, including differences in wealth. About ¼ of the population lives below the poverty line, while most of the wealth lies with the rich elite, mainly French civil servants. The reason for this involves the absence of redistribution measures in the tax system, namely an income tax. One-half of the citizens live in rural areas due to poverty and a lack of opportunities for young people in urban areas, which leads to the creation of ‘shanty towns’ or slums surrounding bigger cities.

Demographically, French Polynesia is a young country; Approximately ¼ of the population is under 14 years old, and 35% is under 20 years old. However, due to the economic difficulties of the families and the already mentioned language limitations, many children drop out of school before the compulsory age of sixteen, narrowing their prospects for future employment. Consequently, 50% of the under twenty-five-year-olds are unemployed, and a big part of the young population struggles with underemployment. 

Conclusion

In conclusion, the educational approach in French Polynesia based on the French system and curriculum, is stable and provides a basis for substantial education. The foundations of education do not face severe challenges. However, by transferring the foreign French system to the academic sector in French Polynesia, the French administration failed to consider local societal and political circumstances. This is reflected in the clash over the language used in schools. Given that language poses the main challenge in French Polynesia, other issues, like the increase in unemployment, are connected to it. So, it’s crucial to focus on making improvements in this area.

Research on child learning suggests significant advantages of bilingual and multilingual education. Including the children’s native language by linking socialization and education will improve cognitive skills, leading to positive development of language ability and educational success. 

Even though academic policies in French Polynesia started to open up to indigenous languages, the dimension of Tahitian in schools compared to French is still minimal. Therefore, it is necessary to expand on the further development of multilingual programs in schools and universities. 

Additionally, enhancing the dialogue and direct cooperation in originally French political responsibilities, such as education, will improve the legitimation of the system, standing against critical voices in the political sphere, such as nationalist parties. 

The decision-makers on education in French Polynesia set a new goal for evaluating multilingual education. To successfully attain this objective, the implementation of innovative policies to reinforce resolutions, coupled with financial support aimed at equipping teachers with the necessary competencies, is imperative.

Photo by Compare Fibre on Unsplash.
References:

WORLD EDUCATION REPORT 2023

At Broken Chalk, we believe that education is not just a privilege, but a fundamental right for every person on this planet. That is why our team of dedicated individuals has poured their hearts and souls into creating the World Education Report 2023.


Each team member contributed with several reports. We aimed to focus on critical key topics concerning education, such as access to quality education; school infrastructure; discrimination in the educational system; teachers’ working conditions, and education in conflict settings. Each team member brought their own unique expertise and perspective, ensuring a well-rounded and comprehensive examination of the state of education worldwide.


We drew on a vast variety of sources concerning education in different countries to realize this report and ensure a comprehensive overview of the state of education in
2023, worldwide. This report, therefore, provides an important basis to ensure further developments within countries’ educational systems.


We did this report to further promote the goals of Broken Chalk. Broken Chalk is a non-profit organization devoted to addressing human rights violations in the educational sector. Broken Chalk advocates on behalf of educational victims. The interns working for Broken Chalk prepare comprehensive reports for international organizations, stakeholders, and governments to highlight human rights violations in education.


As you dive into the World Education Report 2023, we invite you to join us on this journey. Together, let’s rewrite the narrative of education—empowering individuals, eradicating inequality, and creating a brighter, more equitable future for all.

ORLD-EDUCATION-REPORT-2023_last_last-1Download

Download the full report!

Broken Chalk calls for recognition of the importance of access to education in the mother language

Written by Luzi Maj Leonhardt, Dooyum Stephanie Tseke, Sara Rossomonte

Today, on the International Day of the Mother Language, the acknowledgement and advancement of the mother language in education, and social and cultural development are inevitable.  

International Mother Language Day was first introduced by the UNESCO initiative of Bangladesh, at the 1999 General Conference. Since then, it was established by the UN General Assembly, and its importance was formalized as part of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).  

However, limitations in access to education in the mother language remain, as approximately 40% of the global population lacks this fundamental right. In some regions, these numbers even go up to 90% of the population, according to the UN.  Access to education in the student’s mother language fosters an inclusive learning environment, which welcomes indigenous and minority groups and leads to better learning outcomes, especially in the early stages of education.  Broken Chalk recognises the need to address the issue of a lack of native language representation in education in many countries worldwide. Especially the educational sector in countries with a colonial or foreign administrative past continues to be strongly influenced by their language of instruction.  Broken Chalks strongly supports the creation of accessible and high-quality educational materials in the native languages of various countries.

The importance of mother language in education cannot be overstated. In most sub-Saharan African countries, approximately 85% of students receive instruction in a language other than their native tongue (UNESCO, 2017). Nigeria, a nation with over 600 different languages, solely employs English as the language of instruction in primary schools, prohibiting the use of local languages that are deemed informal.

Photo by Ismail Salad Osman Hajji dirir on Unsplash

Similarly, many Asian societies, formerly under colonial rule, such as the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Cambodia, and Indonesia, only began actively promoting their national languages after World War II. In Sri Lanka, Tamil was officially recognised as an official language in 1978, yet English has become the predominant language in recent years.

The absence of mother tongue instruction in education leads to knowledge gaps, particularly at the primary and secondary levels, hindering effective learning and exacerbating inequality and discrimination against diverse cultures, resulting in low student enrolment rates. Broken Chalk calls for urgent investments to lower the educational gaps of children with speak in their mother language.

Ethiopian schools have introduced instruction in students’ native tongues, resulting in significant improvements, including a half-year increase in education attainment and a 40% rise in the likelihood of students reading complete sentences (Rajesh, 2017). Similarly, the Bolivian Campaign for the Right to Education (CBDE) advocates for inclusive educational approaches, particularly for the indigenous population. Broken Chalk believes that education is crucial to working towards the elimination of discrimination against indigenous populations.

Children benefit from embracing both their own and others’ cultural identities while using the same language, as exemplified in Zimbabwe, where the government has prioritised mother tongue education. However, challenges persist globally, including inadequate funding for minority language education, lack of standardised teaching materials, and qualified teachers for indigenous languages. Colonial language policies contribute to linguistic inequality and marginalisation, necessitating governments and educational institutions to prioritise mother languages in curriculum development and teacher training programs. Funding is essential to preserve endangered languages and promote multilingualism through bilingual education initiatives. Broken Chalk calls for the allocation of more funding to promote multilingualism in education.

Photo by Markus Krisetya on Unsplash

At Broken Chalk,celebrating World Mother Language Day reaffirms our commitment to cultural diversity and acknowledges the value and heritage of all languages. In addition to efforts being made globally, Broken Chalk will continue to publish articles in different languages to encourage and advocate for Cultural and Language Diversity.

Broken Chalk announces it to the public with due respect. 

Signed, 

Broken Chalk 

From Slums to Success: The Remarkable Story of Kianda Foundation and Its Impact on Kenya’s Most Vulnerable Communities

Written by Frida Brekk

Kianda Foundation is a non-profit organization that aims to empower underprivileged communities in Kenya through education, healthcare, and entrepreneurship. Founded in 2001 by a group of young professionals, the Kianda Foundation has since impacted thousands of Kenyans’ lives. The foundation’s focus on education is evident in its various programs aimed at providing quality education to children in low-income areas. The Early Childhood Development (ECD) program targets children between the ages of 3 and 6 years and provides them with a solid foundation in literacy, numeracy, and social skills. The primary education program focuses on providing quality education to children in grades 1 to 8, while the secondary school program provides scholarships to deserving students to enable them to complete their high school education.

Kianda Foundation’s healthcare program provides basic medical care to children in low-income areas, focusing on preventive care. The program also provides health education to children and their parents to promote healthy living practices. Additionally, the foundation runs a nutrition program that provides meals to school children, ensuring they have access to healthy and nutritious food. The Foundation’s entrepreneurship program aims to empower women and youth through skills training and access to capital. The program provides training in various skills, such as tailoring, hairdressing, and catering, among others. Participants are also provided with capital to start their businesses, enabling them to become self-sufficient and contribute to their communities’ economic development.

Photo by Kevin Menya on Unsplash

One of the notable achievements is the establishment of Kianda School, a top-tier primary school located in the affluent suburb of Muthaiga, Nairobi. The school provides a world-class education to children from diverse backgrounds, with a focus on academic excellence, character formation, and social responsibility. The school’s alumni have excelled in various fields, including medicine, law, and entrepreneurship. The Kianda Foundation founded Kianda School as a flagship school that provides a world-class education to children from diverse backgrounds. One of the school’s notable achievements is its focus on character formation, social responsibility, and academic excellence. The school’s curriculum includes classes on social justice, environmental conservation, and community service, instilling values of empathy and leadership in students. Kianda School’s alumni have excelled in various fields, including medicine, law, and entrepreneurship, and many have become leaders in their communities and beyond.

Kianda Foundation’s impact is evident in the thousands of lives it has touched over the years. Its commitment to empowering communities through education, healthcare, and entrepreneurship has made a significant difference in the lives of underprivileged Kenyans. The foundation’s programs have improved the quality of life for individuals and contributed to the development of communities and the country as a whole. Kianda Foundation is undoubtedly a testament to the power of individuals coming together to make a difference. Its commitment to empowering underprivileged communities through education, healthcare, and entrepreneurship is an inspiration to many.

Grace was a young girl living in the slums of Nairobi when she was enrolled in the Kianda Foundation’s Early Childhood Development program. Before joining the program, Grace had never held a pencil or attended school. However, Grace quickly learned how to read and write through the program’s quality education and nurturing environment. She also developed social skills and gained confidence in herself. After completing the ECD program, Grace was enrolled in Kianda Primary School, where she excelled academically. She received a scholarship from the Kianda Foundation to complete her high school education. Today, Grace is a successful businesswoman and a role model to many young girls in her community.

Photo by Ugandan Crafts on Unsplash

Mary was a single mother living in a low-income area of Nairobi. She had always dreamed of starting her own business but needed more skills and capital to do so. Through Kianda Foundation’s entrepreneurship program, Mary received training in tailoring and was provided with a microfinance loan to start her own tailoring business. With hard work and determination, Mary’s business grew, and she was able to support her family and employ other women in her community. Mary is now a successful entrepreneur and a mentor to other women in her community who aspire to start their businesses.

Another remarkable accomplishment through the Kianda Foundation is the story of Rosemary Njeri. Rosemary grew up in the slums of Nairobi and had limited access to education and economic opportunities. However, her life changed when she was enrolled in Kianda Foundation’s primary school. Rosemary excelled academically and was awarded a scholarship by the Kianda Foundation to attend a prestigious high school in Kenya. She continued to excel in her studies and was awarded a scholarship to attend the United States International University-Africa (USIU-A) in Nairobi. At USIU-A, Rosemary pursued a degree in international business administration and was actively involved in various extracurricular activities. After completing her degree, Rosemary worked for several years in the private sector in Kenya before returning to Kianda Foundation as a program officer. In this role, she oversaw the foundation’s entrepreneurship program, which provides training and microfinance loans to women and youth in low-income areas. Under Rosemary’s leadership, the entrepreneurship program expanded and reached more people in need. Many of the program’s beneficiaries went on to start successful businesses, creating jobs and contributing to their communities’ development. In recognition of her outstanding work, Rosemary was selected to participate in the prestigious Mandela Washington Fellowship, a flagship program of the Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) that brings together young African leaders for leadership training and networking opportunities in the United States. Today, Rosemary is a successful social entrepreneur and a role model to many young women in Kenya. She is the founder of La Fédération Des Femmes Entrepreneurs Du Cameroun, a social enterprise that empowers women entrepreneurs in Cameroon. Rosemary’s success is a testament to the transformative power of education and the impact that grassroots organizations like the Kianda Foundation can have on people’s lives.

These stories are just a few examples of the many lives impacted by the Kianda Foundation. The foundation’s commitment to sustainably empower individuals and communities through education, healthcare, and entrepreneurship has made a significant difference in the lives of underprivileged Kenyans. The foundation’s impact is a reminder that with dedication, hard work, and a sense of purpose, we can all make a difference in the world.

Kianda Foundation’s programs and impact:

  • Since its inception in 2001, the Kianda Foundation has impacted over 25,000 children and young people in Kenya.
  • The foundation’s Early Childhood Development (ECD) program has provided quality education to over 10,000 children in low-income areas.
  • The primary education program has supported over 1,500 students in their primary school education.
  • The secondary school program has awarded over 500 scholarships to deserving students, enabling them to complete their high school education.
  • The healthcare program has provided medical care to over 8,000 children in low-income areas and has reached over 20,000 children through health education programs.
  • The nutrition program has provided over 250,000 meals to children in schools.
  • The entrepreneurship program has trained over 1,000 women and youth in various skills and has provided over 500 microfinance loans to entrepreneurs.
  • Kianda School, the foundation’s flagship primary school, has over 700 students from diverse backgrounds and consistently ranks among the top schools in Kenya in national exams.
  • Kianda Foundation’s programs have received support from various donors and partners, including USAID, Rotary International, and the Kenyan government.

The foundation’s impact goes beyond just the numbers. Kianda Foundation has empowered communities through its various programs by providing access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities. The foundation’s focus on empowering women and youth is particularly noteworthy, as it has enabled individuals who would otherwise not have had access to such opportunities to become self-sufficient and contribute to their communities development. Kianda Foundation’s impact on the lives of individuals and communities is a testament to the power of grassroots organizations to effect change and make a lasting impact.

References:

Education Monitor: Around The Globe between the 15th and 29th of February, 2024

Broken Chalk proudly presents a new edition of “Education Monitor: Around the Globe” between the 15th and 29th of February, 2024. Broken Chalk aims with this letter to increase public awareness of  Educational problems, challenges, and violations in the scope of the world. This newsletter is unique. This is a weekly newsletter in which we attempt to monitor and convey educational news from around the world in a concise manner. This monitor will be published biweekly with the effort of our young and enthusiastic team.

You can contribute to our work if you like. If you witness any violations in the scope of education, you can write the comment part of this post. Broken Chalk will try to address the issue in its next monitor edition.

To Download it as PDF: follow this link.

Broken Chalk Platform, in March 2019, was founded by a group of educators abroad who experienced and have been experiencing severe human rights violations in Turkey and had to ask for asylum currently in several countries.

These education volunteers also suffered greatly and started their new lives in their new countries without human rights violations. They gained respect just because they were considered human beings in those countries. However, they left one part of their minds and hearts in their homeland. They assigned themselves a new duty, and the human rights violations they left behind had to be announced to the World. A group of education volunteers who came together for this purpose started their activities under the Broken Chalk platform’s umbrella. However, the Broken Chalk platform was not enough to serve their aims. Therefore, they completed their official establishment as a Human Rights Foundation in October 2020.

Broken Chalk is now much more than a platform, and we have reviewed and enlarged our vision and mission within this framework. Violations of rights would be the first in our agenda in the field of Education all over the World. At the point we reached today, Broken Chalk opened its door to all individuals from all across the globe, from all professions, and to all individuals who say or can say ‘I also want to stand against violations of human rights in Education for our future and whole humanity, where our generations grow up together.’

Education is essential because it can help us eliminate the evils from society, introduce, and increase the good. We want to draw the public’s and stakeholders’ attention to the fact that Education is in danger in several different parts of the World. The attacks are wide-reaching, from the bombing of schools to the murder of students and teachers. Raping and sexual violence, arbitrary arrests, and forced recruitment also occurred, instigated by armed groups. Attacks on Education harm the students and teachers but also affect the communities in the short and long term.

We invite all individuals who want to stop human rights violations in Education to become Volunteers at Broken Chalk.

Educational Challenges in the Caribean Netherlands

Written by Sterre Krunen

Every student counts! In 2011, this slogan was the starting shot of the Caribbean and European Netherlands’ combined efforts to achieve educational equity and raise the quality of education on the islands of Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba. Although quality and equity increased, the Caribbean Netherlands still dealt with significant educational challenges in 2023. This article will explore three main challenges: the care for students with special needs, multilingualism, and the effects of poverty.

This article analyses these three challenges to understand the accessibility and quality of education in the Caribbean Netherlands. But first, we need to go into the governance structure of the islands and their relationship with the European Netherlands to fully understand the barriers to tackling the challenges and efforts to address them. Also, the policy programs addressing education and the Education Agendas will be given special attention to show continuing good practices and to explain the context in which the current challenges continue.

This map shows us the Kingdom of the Netherlands, consisting of the European Netherlands and the Caribbean Netherlands. Both thank their name to their geographical location (CC BY-SA 3.0 DEED, Wikimedia Commons: TUBS).

Context-Specific Efforts to Overcome Education Inequity

In 1948, Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba became a part of the Dutch Antilles, a separate country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. This changed in 2010: the islands became public bodies under the European Netherlands. Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba are now local governments. An executive council, an island council, and the Dutch national government govern each island. Since this change, the islands have been referred to as the Caribbean Netherlands or the BES-islands.[i]

The Dutch Ministry for Education, Culture and Science is responsible for education. The schools on the islands are part of the Dutch education system and are monitored by the Netherlands’ Inspectorate of Education.[ii] The Dutch Ministry of Education, island councils and other stakeholders cooperated over the past twelve years to develop three policy programs, the Education Agendas.

The Education Agendas address educational equity between the two parts of the Netherlands. The idea is that it should not matter whether a child grows up in the European Netherlands or the Caribbean Netherlands; educational opportunities should be the same.[iii] The agendas address the specific context of the islands, as there are apparent differences from the European Netherlands in terms of culture, history, identity, language, scale, and organization.[iv]

The first two agendas address all three islands within one agenda. During the draft of the first Education Agenda (2011-2016), the level of education of many schools on the BES islands did not fulfil European nor Caribbean Dutch standards.[v] By 2016, most schools reached basic quality standards. However, particular areas still required improvement, again addressed in the second Agenda (2017-2020). [vi] The evaluation of this Agenda in 2020 shows that the main challenges are care for students with special needs and multilingualism.[vii]

While the third Education Agenda has not yet been published, it shall address these challenges.[viii] Furthermore, this agenda will address the challenges on each island separately, showing us a further commitment to context-specific policymaking, which hopefully improves the effectiveness of the third Education Agenda.

Educational Challenge I: Care for Students with Special Needs

The first challenge to discuss is the care for students with special needs. The right to education for children with special needs is a human right. It is taken up in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. While the last Convention was ratified by the European Netherlands, it does not apply to the Caribbean Netherlands.

A statement by the Expertise Centre Education Care Saba in 2021 summarizes the importance of care for these students:  “Students have the right to feel included in a safe and reliable environment with a structured pedagogical climate that is tolerant and encouraging for the development of all”.[ix] Now, children with special needs still face situations in which education is not tailored to them, meaning they do not profit from education as their peers or eventually drop out. Some children do not have access to education at all. Children with a higher need for care face difficulties.[x]

An example of inadequate care is the case of the ten-year-old Arianny on Bonaire. In 2022, the non-speaking girl was in the news as she could not attend education on Bonaire. Arianny had no access. Members of the Dutch parliament asked the then minister of Education, Dennis Wiersma, questions about her situation and the general situation on Bonaire. The minister reacted that all children should have access to education and are required to attend school, despite specific situations. The situation of Arianny and the research in other reports show us that is not yet the reality.[xi]

Why do these problems continue even after the two Education Agendas?

Student care on the BES islands is not comparable to care in the European Netherlands. While both experience similar problems, the expert centre on Saba notes that the main difference derives from scale and school culture, for example, the lack of awareness about the differing needs of students. This also applies to the other islands: children with special needs continue to follow the same program as their peers even though they need additional care. Moreover, there are relatively more students with special needs in Saba than in the European Netherlands. Possible explanations are a lack of education planning, differentiation in the classroom and special education needs teachers.[xii] Also, non-school-related causes affect children’s learning capabilities, such as poverty and domestic violence.[xiii]

This continuing lack of care for students with special needs thus asks for extra efforts. Renewed attention to this problem and policies need to tackle the problem, ensuring (continuance of) access to education for children like Arianny. Individual needs must be considered to optimize the learning experience of already vulnerable students.

Three kids sitting in the port of Kralendijk, the capital of Bonaire (CC BY-NC 2.0 DEED, Flickr: Globewriter).

Educational Challenge II: Multilingualism

Because of the different languages being spoken on each island, the language of education has been a thorny issue. Encountered challenges have been linguistic imperialism, learning challenges, and difficulty accessing tertiary education in Dutch.

On Bonaire, most inhabitants speak Papiamento as their mother tongue. On Saba and St. Eustasius, a local variety of Caribbean English has the upper hand. Despite this, Dutch was the only officially recognized language until the beginning of the century thus, education was in Dutch.[xiv]Nowadays, Papiamento and English can both be used in education. This represents the reality of the islands and a respect for local languages, making it a laudable development and a move away from linguistic imperialism.

However, it also causes new educational challenges, especially for learning results and further education. On Saba and St. Eustatius, the instruction language is English. Dutch is being taught as a foreign language.[xv] St. Eustatius switched to English as an instruction language in secondary education in 2014. Dutch proved to negatively affect learning outcomes and attitudes towards the Dutch language.[xvi] Saba has used English as the instruction language for a more extended period. However, only teaching Dutch as a foreign language hinders access to tertiary education. A low proficiency in Dutch means that students from these islands cannot access (all) tertiary education institutions in the European Netherlands.[xvii] This is especially problematic because the Caribbean Netherlands does not have any universities or universities of applied sciences, meaning inhabitants must move to pursue tertiary education.[xviii]

On Bonaire, education starts in Papiamento  – the native language of most students  – for the first two years of primary school. After these years, the instruction language became Dutch. This causes risks, as the case of St. Eustatius before 2014 showed. Furthermore, it can hinder learning outcomes as children might struggle with Dutch.[xix]

Therefore, multilingualism leads to specific challenges for students regarding access to further education and learning outcomes. It has been difficult to find a balance between Dutch, Papiamento, and Caribbean English that will tackle these challenges. A comprehensive language policy should be developed per island, where native languages and Dutch get a well-balanced place within the education system.

Educational Challenge III: Poverty

This third educational challenge goes beyond the education agendas as it intertwines with the overall situation on the BES islands: life on the islands has become increasingly expensive, and salaries and government support are insufficient to afford this.

This is why children on the BES islands noted poverty as one of the biggest challenges in their lives in 2021. And high poverty levels have continued since then: 11,000 people live below the poverty line in 2023. This is an extremely high number, considering that the islands’ total population is 30,000.[xx] In comparison to the European Netherlands: 800,000 live in poverty on a population of almost 18 million.[xxi]

What do such numbers mean for Caribbean students?

The rapport between the Dutch Ombudsman and the Children’s Ombudsman gives us the distressing example of Shanice, an 11-year-old Bonairean girl. Her mother is a single caretaker, working multiple jobs to stay afloat. She is more often at work than at home. Shanice cares for her younger brothers and sisters, looks after the groceries, and wash dishes instead of having the opportunity to focus on her studies. She goes to school: she likes it there. However, she often feels stressed because of her many responsibilities. Then, she cannot focus or learn. At the same time, Shanice pressures herself to learn: she wants to have a different life than her mom.[xxii]

This example shows how poverty gives children many responsibilities and negatively affects their learning. This example does not comprise all adverse effects. When not having enough money, healthy food is not always a priority, just like schoolbooks or having a good place to study. Extra school costs might not be paid. Parents and kids both experience high-stress levels, which might cause parents to be (emotionally) unavailable and children to have problems focusing. All negatively affect the school outcomes of children.[xxiii]

To tackle this problem of poverty and its effects, there should be governmental support to lift children and their parents from poverty. However, government policies are one of the causes of poverty: the model of living costs for the BES island presents living costs as lower than they are. Policies are developed based on this model. Moreover, this is a recurring argument for not higher social welfare: ensuring social welfare will demotivate people, and they will not work anymore.[xxiv] Hence, policies have contributed to the problem of poverty.

In addition, inhabitants of the BES islands do not always have access to the same resources European Dutch individuals have. These resources are, however, of great importance: European Dutch depend on them, but Caribbean Dutch cannot even access them.[xxv] This is possible because of the special status of the islands. The UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination noted in 2021 that such differences between the European Netherlands and Caribbean Netherlands are deplorable, that discrimination should be fought, and that equality should be pursued.

The Dutch government has been taking steps. A law ensuring the equal treatment of all citizens in the Netherlands will come into effect for the Caribbean Netherlands.[xxvi] The exact date is, however, unclear. Furthermore, the model of living costs will be adjusted in July 2024. From that date onwards, inhabitants of the Caribbean Netherlands will be able to breach the gap between social security and living costs that exists now. In addition, the Dutch government does undertake other efforts to address poverty, but the Netherlands Institute for Human Rights judges them to be insufficient. [xxvii]

The Dutch government seems to increasingly take responsibility for the high poverty levels in the Caribbean Netherlands. A necessary development: despite statements such as ‘Every student counts!’, the Dutch government has discriminated against Caribbean Dutch citizens. The unfavourable treatment they experience puts them behind their fellow citizens in Europe.

Conclusion

Education quality has increased significantly on the Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba islands. Great efforts have been made to tailor policies to the local contexts of the islands, which is essential for education equity between the European and Caribbean Netherlands. This is praiseworthy and will hopefully continue with the third Education Agenda.

However, great educational challenges persist on the islands. Benefits from and access to education are under pressure.  While multilingualism affects all students, poverty and the lack of special care affect some students disproportionately. Furthermore, the problem of poverty and lack of special care show clear signs of discrimination, which should be condemned and stopped. The case of the islands of Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba thus indicates the need for policies tackling discrimination and a comprehensive plan to improve education further.

References

Cover Image: A young girl in costume during a parade on Bonaire (CC BY-SA 4.0 DEED, Wikimedia Commons: Atsme).

[i] Rijksoverheid. (N.d). Caribisch deel van het Koninkrijk. Rijksoverheid. https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/caribische-deel-van-het-koninkrijk/rechtspositie-politieke-ambtsdragers-bonaire-sint-eustatius-saba

[ii] Rijksoverheid. (N.d.). Caribisch deel van het Koninkrijk. Rijksoverheid.

[iii] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/onderwijs-cultuur-wetenschap

[iv] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijsagenda voor Caribisch Nederland: samen werken aan kwaliteit. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. 1. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/binaries/rijksdienstcn-nederlands/documenten/brochures/onderwijs-cultuur/onderwijsagendas/eerste-onderwijsagenda-caribisch-nederland/index/Eerste_Onderwijsagenda_NL.pdf

[v] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijsagenda voor Caribisch Nederland: samen werken aan kwaliteit. 1.

[vi] Inspectie van het Onderwijs. (2017). De Ontwikkeling van het Onderwijs in Caribisch Nederland 2014-2016. Onderwijsinspectie. 39-41. https://www.onderwijsinspectie.nl/documenten/rapporten/2017/03/21/rapport-onderwijsontwikkelingen-caribisch-nederland-20142016

[vii] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 20. https://www.eerstekamer.nl/overig/20210708/evaluatie_tweede_onderwijsagenda/document3/f=/vlkch545eltd_opgemaakt.

[viii] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 22.

[ix]. Langerak, Lisa. (2021). Inclusive Special Education on Saba. Expertise Center Education Care. 2. https://www.learningsaba.com/2021_Care_Coordinator/210614%20Project%20plan%20Inclusive%20Special%20Education%20Saba.pdf

[x] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 20.

[xi] Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. (2022). Antwoord op schriftelijke vragen van de leden Van den Berg en Peters (beiden CDA) over het bericht ‘Moeder vraagt om hulp: 10-jarige Arianny kan op Bonaire niet naar school. Open Overheid. 2-3. https://open.overheid.nl/documenten/ronl-b6d4ce01be3eac9fe87130ee6b9b0f08d72e664e/pdf

[xii] Langerak, Lisa. (2021). Inclusive Special Education on Saba. Expertise Center Education Care. 5.

[xiii] Kinderombudsman. (2021). Als je het ons vraagt: kinderen op de BES-eilanden. Kinderombudsman. 10-11. https://www.kinderombudsman.nl/publicaties/rapport-als-je-het-ons-vraagt-onderzoek-kinderen-op-de-bes

[xiv] Mijts, Eric, Ellen-Petra Kester and Nicholas Faraclas. (2014). Multilingualism and education in the Caribbean Netherlands. A community-based approach to a sustainable language education policy. The case study of St. Eustatius. NT2. 2. https://www.nt2.nl/documenten/meertaligheid_en_onderwijs/kambel_meertaligheid_binnenwerk_eng_h5.pdf

[xv] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Taal in het Onderwijs. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/onderwijs-cultuur-wetenschap/ouders-leerlingen/taal-in-het-onderwijs

[xvi] Polak, Anneke. (2014). Engels als instructietaal ‘ingrijpend’. Caribisch Netwerk. https://caribischnetwerk.ntr.nl/2014/06/19/engels-als-instructietaal-statia-ingrijpend/

[xvii] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 20.

[xviii] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Higher Education and Science. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. https://english.rijksdienstcn.com/education-culture-science/higher-education-and-science

[xix] Kloosterboer, Karin. (2013). Kind op Bonaire, St. Eustatius en Saba. UNICEF. 15. https://content.presspage.com/uploads/688/samenvattingkindopbeslowres.pdf

[xx] NOS. (2023). Derde van Caribisch Nederland onder armoedegrens, pleidooi voor hoger minimumloon. NOS

https://nos.nl/artikel/2493122-derde-van-caribisch-nederland-onder-armoedegrens-pleidooi-voor-hoger-minimumloon

[xxi] Den Hartog, Tobias and Laurens Kok. (2023). Op weg naar 1 miljoen armen: bij dit inkomen leef je volgens de overheid in armoede. Het Parool.

https://www.parool.nl/nederland/op-weg-naar-1-miljoen-armen-bij-dit-inkomen-leef-je-volgens-de-overheid-in-armoede~b9c9b7ed/

[xxii] Kinderombudsman, and Nationale Ombudsman. (2023). Caribische kinderen van de rekening. Kinderombudsman. 4. https://www.nationaleombudsman.nl/publicaties/rapporten/2022058#:~:text=Dit%20rapport%20beschrijft%20de%20knelpunten,zelf%20als%20voor%20hun%20kinderen.

[xxiii] Nederlands Jeugdinstituut. (N.d). De invloed van armoede op schoolprestaties. Nederlands Jeugdinstituut. https://www.nji.nl/armoede/invloed-op-schoolprestaties

[xxiv] Haringsma, Phaedra. (2022). Zo wordt ongelijkheid tussen Europees en Caribisch Nederland al jaren in stand gehouden. De Correspondent. https://decorrespondent.nl/13713/zo-wordt-ongelijkheid-tussen-europees-en-caribisch-nederland-al-jaren-in-stand-gehouden/2f84b44f-db88-0d7c-029d-9c1d00ae02b3

 

[xxvi] Netherlands Institute for Human Rights. (2023). Caribisch Nederland krijgt wetgeving gelijke behandeling. College voor de Rechten van de Mens. https://www.mensenrechten.nl/actueel/nieuws/2023/01/25/caribisch-nederland-krijgt-wetgeving-gelijke-behandeling#:~:text=Iedereen%20die%20zich%20in%20Nederland,2010%20bijzondere%20gemeentes%20van%20Nederland

[xxvii] Netherlands Institute for Human Rights. (2023). Report to UN Committee on economic, social and cultural human rights in the Netherlands. College voor de Rechten van de Mens. 4-6. https://publicaties.mensenrechten.nl/file/5803a853-0bbe-b495-7932-3bb751e0aed4.pdf

Interview with Mr Hakan Kaplankaya on the importance of the ECtHR judgement in YÜKSEL YALÇINKAYA v TÜRKİYE

ECHR courtroom - Copyright AP Photo Euronews.com

By Maria Popova

I had an interview with Mr Hakan Kaplankaya. Together, we discussed the ECtHR decision Yuksel Yalcinkaya vs Turkey.

Hakan Kaplankaya is a legal advisor and former Turkish diplomat. His research and consultancy services focus mainly on human rights advocacy and international commercial arbitration. During his tenure at the Ministry, he worked at the NATO Desk. He is also a board member of InstiduDE, Belgium’s research-driven NGO.

  1. Mr Kaplankaya, can you elaborate for us what the judgement is about and its importance?

The Turkish government launched a crackdown on the Gulen Movement (GM), especially after the graft probes in December 2013, which escalated to an annihilation campaign after the failed coup on July 15, 2016. GM was designated as a terrorist organisation, which paved the way to widespread criminal prosecutions for membership in a terrorist group against members, followers, and sympathisers of the movement. Within criminal proceedings, routine activities were treated as evidence of terrorist organisation membership, such as subscribing to a daily, enrolling children in GM-affiliated schools, depositing money in Bankasya, using the Bylock mobile chat application, joining GM-related associations, and participating in religious talks.

Over 600,000 people were prosecuted, with more than 300,000 detained and over 100,000 convicted on terrorism charges. The ECtHR’s judgment is a long-awaited response to this travesty of justice.

Another notable aspect of these persecutions and the judgment is that this judicial practice has risen to crimes against humanity. As fellows of the Institute for Diplomacy and Economy, we drafted a report on this issue two years ago. In various opinions, the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention (WGAD) has concluded that the arbitrary detentions faced by numerous Turkish individuals linked to this group since the coup attempt follow a systematic and widespread pattern, possibly amounting to crimes against humanity. The international community should give due consideration and examination to this dimension.

  1. The Grand Chamber judgment in the case highlighted violations of Article 7 (no punishment without law) and Article 6 § 1 (right to a fair trial) of the ECHR. Could you explain how the Court found that the applicant’s conviction, based on the use of the ByLock application, departed from the requirements of national law and was contrary to the object and purpose of Article 7, which aims to provide safeguards against arbitrary prosecution, conviction, and punishment?

The Court observed that the applicant’s conviction for membership in a terrorist organisation was primarily based on his alleged use of the ByLock messaging application, while other evidence, such as his account at Bank Asya and his membership in a trade union and an association, served as corroborative sources. The mere use of the ByLock application, regardless of the content of the messages or the recipients’ identities, was deemed sufficient in domestic law to establish all the elements of the crime of belonging to an armed terrorist organisation.

Interview with Mr Hakan Kaplankaya on the importance of the ECtHR judgement in YÜKSEL YALÇINKAYA v TÜRKİYE App no 15669/20 (ECtHR, 26 September 2023)

The Court acknowledged that the use of the ByLock application could indicate some connection with the Gülen Group but disagreed with the domestic courts’ conclusion, which was merely downloading and using the application pointed out the complete submission to the organisation and its hierarchy. Instead, the Court found that relying on the mere use of ByLock alone to establish the elements of the offence was an unforeseeable and expansive interpretation of anti-terror legislation. This interpretation essentially created an almost automatic presumption of guilt based solely on ByLock usage, making it extremely difficult for the applicant to prove his innocence.

Without examining the presence of ‘knowledge’ and ‘intent,’ which are requirements in the legal definition of the offence under domestic law, the Court observed that objective liability was effectively attached to the use of ByLock. This interpretation by the domestic courts effectively bypassed the essential, particularly mental, element of the offence and treated it as a strict liability offence, thus deviating from the established requirements in domestic law. Consequently, the Court ruled that there had been a violation of Article 7 of the Convention.

  1. The judgment identifies procedural shortcomings in the criminal proceedings against Mr Yalçınkaya, particularly regarding his access to and ability to effectively challenge the ByLock evidence, breaching his right to a fair trial under Article 6. Can you elaborate on the specific failures in the courts’ handling of the ByLock evidence and how these shortcomings undermined the applicant’s opportunity to challenge the proof effectively, as outlined by the Court?

Regarding Article 6 § 1 of the Convention, the Court examined whether the applicant, who faced non-disclosure of crucial ByLock data, was given adequate procedural safeguards and whether the applicant was afforded a suitable opportunity to prepare his defence.

The Court criticised the silence of domestic courts concerning their rejection of the applicant’s request for Bylock raw data, as well as the applicant’s substantiated concerns about the reliability of the evidence. The refusal of the applicant’s request to independently examine the raw data to verify its content and integrity was also noted. The Court emphasized that proceedings should have allowed the applicant to fully comment on the decrypted material, ensuring a “fair balance” between the parties.

In conclusion, the Court found insufficient safeguards for the applicant to challenge the evidence effectively and on equal footing with the prosecution. The failure of domestic courts to address the applicant’s requests and objections raised doubts that they were impervious to the defence arguments. The Court ruled that the applicant was not genuinely ‘heard,’ concluding that the criminal proceedings fell short of a fair trial, breaching Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

  1. The Court held that Türkiye must take general measures to address systemic problems, particularly concerning the Turkish judiciary’s approach to using ByLock. As a legal expert, what specific measures do you believe would be necessary to rectify the identified systemic problems and ensure that future cases involving digital evidence, like ByLock, comply with the requirements of the ECHR, particularly in safeguarding individuals against arbitrary consequences and upholding the principles of a fair trial?

The Court highlighted the systemic nature of the issue, with over 8,000 similar cases and the potential for around one hundred thousand more cases from Turkey to reach the European Court. To address this, Turkey needs to implement general measures for resolution. Although the anti-terror legislation has faced criticism for its broad interpretative potential, mainly from scholars, the Venice Commission, and some European Court judgments, I believe the core problem lies in the arbitrary interpretation by the Turkish judiciary rather than the legislation’s wording. Despite Yalçınkaya reflecting the Court’s stance on this interpretation, there is still room for legislative amendment. However, the most immediate solution would be a jurisprudential change, with the Turkish judiciary aligning itself with the Yalçınkaya judgment, refraining from incriminating people for ordinary, non-criminal activities. Unfortunately, four months after the release of this judgment, Turkish courts have not given a clear signal that they have aligned with it.

Reopening cases in Turkey that have already been presented to the European Court could present a viable solution. Although Turkish criminal procedure permits the reopening of a case if the European Court identifies a violation, this right is currently not extended to similar cases. Nevertheless, a recent ruling by the Turkish Constitutional Court lends support to this potential solution. Consequently, a legal amendment would be beneficial to address and clarify this issue explicitly. Unfortunately, I am unaware of any instance where a domestic court has approved reopening a case similar to Yalcinkaya.

Following the Yalcinkaya case, individuals convicted of terrorism charges based on their alleged membership in the GM should be acquitted. The Bylock evidence, riddled with numerous shortcomings, was examined by the Strasbourg Court, which criticised the Turkish court’s flawed examination without explicitly affirming its evidentiary value. However, given the significant deficiencies in the Bylock evidence, it becomes untenable for any impartial court to accept it as credible. Moreover, the Court identified a more substantial issue, emphasising a violation of Article 7. Thus, the result should be an acquittal.

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Interview with Mr Hakan Kaplankaya ECtHR YÜKSEL YALÇINKAYA v TÜRKİYE By Maria Popova
  1. Given the historical significance outlined in the Yalçınkaya judgment and its impact on Article 7 violations, can you elaborate on the specific legal principles related to the “legality of crimes and punishments” that make an Article 7 violation so severe and why the ECHR has been cautious in finding such violations for its member states over the years?”

The “No punishment without law” principle is a fundamental legal tenet. In societies governed by the rule of law, the violation of this principle is not encountered. The recent judgment marks the sixtieth violation ruling by the Court in its history. The incrimination of hundreds of thousands of people in contravention of this principle is profoundly shocking. Witnessing such a grave systemic violation is, in my view, a source of shame for all Europeans.

  1. The Yalçınkaya decision highlights a systemic issue with over 8,000 pending cases of a similar nature and suggests the potential for over 100,000 more cases based on ByLock usage. How do you think non-compliance with the Yalçınkaya decision could impact Turkey’s judicial system and its international standing, and what steps should the authorities, particularly the Constitutional Court, take to address this issue promptly?

As stated in the judgment, it is binding on the Turkish judiciary. Therefore, the Turkish Constitutional Court and other superior courts should align with it. Failure to do so may result in the European Court issuing violation judgments for similar cases and potential future applications. The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe will monitor the execution of the judgment, involving a political and diplomatic process. Significantly, according to the Turkish Constitution, the decisions of the European Court are binding, and I hope that they will eventually be implemented in Turkey by Turkish authorities.

Impacts of climate change on human rights

Presented by: Daphne Rein, Gauthier Schoufs, Ioana-Sorina Alexa, Leyang Fu and Luna Plet

Global climate change presents a significant and multifaceted challenge to Taiwan, with anticipated increases in temperatures, heightened frequency of heatwaves, and intensified typhoons and extreme rainfall events across the country. Between 2006 and 2020, Taiwan experienced 384 instances of extreme climate events, underscoring the pressing nature of this issue1. The devastating impact of Typhoon Marakot serves as a perfect illustration of climate change’s profound effects on the human rights of the Taiwanese population. In 2009, this Typhoon resulted in the tragic loss of 699 lives, the destruction of 1766 homes, and the displacement of 4500 residents. As an NGO committed to advancing educational rights, Broken Chalk seeks to highlight the direct and future implications of climate change on human rights in Taiwan, specifically on the right to education.

Drawing from the aftermath of Typhoon Marakot, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Taiwan reported that 1273 schools were adversely affected, depriving children of their fundamental right to education. Furthermore, the widespread internal displacement stemming from this event also compounds challenges to educational rights. The financial hardships and administrative obstacles caused by displacement may impede enrollment and hinder school attendance. In addition, linguistic barriers further exacerbate the educational rights violations associated with internal displacement2. This is specifically the case for minorities and indigenous people. It is noteworthy that Taiwan is home to 16 officially recognised indigenous groups, representing a total of 2,4% of its population3.

Moreover, areas managing a large influx of displaced persons may face limitations in providing quality education. The cumulative impact of these challenges, coupled with the trauma experienced by affected individuals, is likely to create additional barriers to effective schooling. Taking an equity-based approach, Broken Chalk underscores the urgent need for comprehensive strategies to address the intersection of climate change and the preservation of human rights. These efforts are crucial to averting future occurrences of a similar nature.

14A_Input_for_analytical_study_on_loss_and_damage

Download the PDF here.

Featured image by Susan Melkisethian on Flickr.

1 Mucahid Mustafa Bayrak, “Global Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples in Taiwan: A

Critical Bibliometric Analysis and Review”. 2020. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-

1050/13/1/29

2 UNESCO, « The Impact of Climate Displacemet on the right to education. » 2019. Available online: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000374966

3 Council of Indigenous Peoples Council Confirmed Tribe Area. 2020. Available online:

https://www.cip.gov.tw/portal/docList.html?CID=7CDD0E527E32B424