This report drafted by Broken Chalk contributes to the fourth cycle of the Universal Periodic Review for New Zealand. This report focuses exclusively on human rights issues in New Zealand’s education field.
The education system of New Zealand consists of three levels. Early childhood education is from birth to school entry age. Primary and secondary education ranges from 5-19 years of age. Schooling is compulsory from ages 6-16. Once this is completed, students move to higher and vocational education.
Early Childhood Education (ECE) is not compulsory; however, it is attended by 96.8% of children. It is important to note that there are different types of ECE services.[i] The kind of learning that the children receive at an ECE service or Kōhanga Reo follows the guidance of the Te Whāriki curriculum framework.
The Te Whāriki curriculum framework has two pathways. Te Whāriki a te Kōhanga Reo is an indigenous approach which is deeply rooted in te reo Māori for Te Kōhanga Reo. Te Whāriki Early Childhood Curriculum is a bicultural framework for early childhood services. Both frameworks are distinct and hold equal significance in their respective contexts.[ii]
Te Kōhanga Reo entails a Māori immersion environment for tamariki and their whanau. It caters to tamariki from birth to school age.[iii]
Education is free in schools across all government-owned and funded grades. This free education is applicable if you are a New Zealand citizen or a permanent resident.
In the Māori medium of education, students are taught at least 51% of the education in Māori language. In English-medium schools, students learn te reo Māori as a language subject. The Māori language is also used in English-medium schools for teaching curriculum subjects up to 50% of the time. The English-medium schools follow the New Zealand Curriculum, whereas the Māori-medium schools follow a curriculum based on Māori philosophies.[iv]
[i] Ministry of Education. “Education in New Zealand.” Accessed September 25, 2023. https://www.education.govt.nz/our-work/our-role-and-our-people/education-in-nz/#Early
[ii] Te Whāriki Online. “Te Whāriki Online”. Accessed September 25, 2023. https://tewhariki.tki.org.nz
[iii] Ministry of Education. “For parents and whānau.” Accessed September 25, 2023. https://parents.education.govt.nz/early-learning/early-childhood-education/different-kinds-of-early-childhood-education/
[iv] Ministry of Education. “Education in New Zealand.” Accessed September 25, 2023. https://www.education.govt.nz/our-work/our-role-and-our-people/education-in-nz/#Early
The following report has been drafted by Broken Chalk as a stakeholder contribution to the Slovak Republic.
Public schools provide primary and secondary education free of charge. Higher education is also accessible for full-time students, ensuring they do not exceed the standard length of study. Private and church schools may charge for education provided.[i]
The state budget allocates funds to schools according to the number of pupils, personnel and economic demands.[ii]
Compulsory school attendance lasts ten years between the ages of 6 and 16.[iii]
The Slovak language is the language of instruction at most schools.[iv]
Decentralisation in the Slovak Republic is based on a dual system of i) self-government by local authorities (regions and municipalities) and ii) “deconcentrated” state administration that refers to the transfer of responsibilities to local units of the central government.[v]
As of 2016, Slovakia’s education funding stood at 3.9% of the national GDP, ranking 109th worldwide. In 2019, London think-tank The Legatum Institute ranked Slovakia’s education system 48th out of 167 countries evaluated, and 2019 data from The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) noted an upward trend in education spending ($15.87 per student). However, the OECD also identified a decline in Slovakian students’ math, reading, and science scores.[vi]
Higher education institutions are independent institutions that manage the course and focus of education, research, development, economy, and their internal organisation. Law defines the extent of the self-governing scope of higher education institutions.[vii]
In the Slovak Republic, 39% of 25-34-year-olds had a tertiary qualification in 2021 compared to 47% on average across OECD countries. In the Slovak Republic, the share of women among general upper secondary graduates is 59% (OECD average 55%). Men make up 55% of all vocational upper secondary graduates, the same as the OECD average.[viii]
Although education in Slovakia is relatively well-organised and of high quality, the system has some issues. These issues are demonstrated by a survey, for instance, conducted by researchers at Bratislava’s Comenius University, which revealed that around 50% of the respondents would rather receive their higher education abroad than at home.[ix]
Broken Chalk (BC) appreciates all achievements and advancements of the Slovakian educational system and urges the Slovakian government to address issues in its education to guarantee its citizens their human right to education.
[i] OECD. 2016. “School Education in the Slovak Republic.” OECD ILibrary. Paris. February 19, 2016. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/9789264247567-5-en.pdf?expires=1692179646&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=B37450E5DE054F38AE5C043EDEC52DDB.
[ii] ibid.
[iii] ibid.
[iv] Ibid.
[v] OECD. 2016. “School Education in the Slovak Republic.” OECD ILibrary. Paris. February 19, 2016. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/9789264247567-5-en.pdf?expires=1692179646&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=B37450E5DE054F38AE5C043EDEC52DDB.
[vi] “8 Facts about Education in Slovakia.” 2020. The Borgen Project. February 21, 2020. https://borgenproject.org/8-facts-about-education-in-slovakia/.
[vii] “Education GPS – Slovak Republic – Overview of the Education System (EAG 2019).” n.d. Gpseducation.oecd.org. https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=SVK&treshold=10&topic=EO.
[viii] ibid.
[ix] “8 Facts about Education in Slovakia.” 2020. The Borgen Project. February 21, 2020. https://borgenproject.org/8-facts-about-education-in-slovakia/.
The following report has been drafted by Broken Chalk as a stakeholder contribution to the Republic of Vanuatu.
Vanuatu’s Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) administers and manages the country’s formal education system composed of two years of preschool, six years of primary school, four years of junior secondary education, and three years of senior secondary education. [i] The six years of primary education have been compulsory and universal since 2010. Over 98% of elementary schools are public or government-aided Christian schools. [ii]
Vanuatu has significantly raised the share of government expenditure dedicated to education compared to the total government spending. In 2020, 20.98% of the total expenditure was dedicated to education, increasing to 23.76% by 2021. In the progress report for 2021 and 2022, the exact government expenditure still needs to be mentioned. Nevertheless, the report describes progress in the education support program as satisfactory and anticipates that approximately 28% of the total government expenditure will be allocated to the education sector in 2022. This shows Vanuatu’s dedication and commitment to meet domestic educational funding objectives. [iii]
Local educational groups encompass Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and Technical Assistants (TAs) who provide specialised technical knowledge and assistance in educational projects or programs. These actors actively participate in evidence-driven policy discussions and monitor equity and learning outcome efforts to improve educational results. [iv]
The multilingual character of the community has a significant impact on education. Bislama, the local pidgin language, is the prevalent means of communication nationwide. Children receive their education in French or English schools with a language policy promoting students to start their early education in their native vernacular before transitioning to French and English. [v]
Vanuatu comprises 83 scattered islands, with 64 of them being inhabited. It is considered the most disaster-prone country globally, frequently encountering earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, cyclones, and flooding. This poses unique challenges to ensuring education, educational materials and access to continuous education in emergencies. [vi]
With about 50% of Vanuatu’s population being of schooling age, the educational system has considerable influence and responsibility. The primary education sector accommodates most students, making up approximately 59% of the total student population within the education system in any given year, with enrolment rates increasing. Participation levels in pre-school and secondary school are somewhat lower. Although registration has risen recently, many students drop out at the junior secondary level. [vii]
Broken Chalk is delighted to see Vanuatu’s dedication to advancing Gender Equity and Inclusion in Education. This commitment is evident through initiatives to increase awareness of Gender-based Violence and foster equitable educational opportunities, particularly by enhancing the participation of girls and women in higher education through the Gender Equity in Education Policy (GEEP) reviewed in August 2018. The policy aims to secure equal opportunities and rights for every individual in education and training, with its overarching objective being to cultivate a proficient and capable human resource pool that can contribute to the nation and the global community. [viii]
[ii] GlobalPartnership.org. “Vanuatu | Where We Work | Global Partnership for Education.” www.globalpartnership.org. GPE Transforming Education, 2020. https://www.globalpartnership.org/where-we-work/vanuatu. (Accessed 12 Sept. 2023)
[iii] GlobalPartnership.org. “GPE 2025 Results Framework for Vanuatu.” GPE Transforming Education, 2022. https://www.globalpartnership.org/content/gpe-2025-results-framework-vanuatu. (Accessed 12 Sept. 2023) P. 1.; Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, “2021-22 Vanuatu Development Program Progress Report,” Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2021.
The following report has been drafted by Broken Chalk as a stakeholder contribution to the Oriental Republic of Uruguay.
Education in Uruguay is accessible at all levels. Public education is centrally regulated by the National Public Education Administration (CODICEN). At the same time, there is also a Ministry of Education and Culture, which partly regulates private pre-primary and tertiary education and coordinates the education system but does not formulate policies.[i]
Uruguayan children spend 11 years in compulsory education. The last three years of secondary education are non-compulsory, and they prepare students for higher education or provide them with vocational skills. [ii]
Many children attend public institutions: 86% of children in early childhood education are enrolled in public schools.[iii]
The gross enrolment in primary school was 104.19% in 2020, slightly higher than the world average of 102.59%, while 119.9% of children enrolled in secondary education, significantly higher than the 94.51% world average. [iv]
It is also notable that approximately 68% of people in Uruguay had tertiary education in 2020, which was higher than the international average of 52%.[v]
Broken Chalk (BC) is pleased to note that equity is becoming an ever-greater focus in Uruguayan education to ensure that children from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds are not left behind. The Community Teacher Programme, the Teacher + Teacher Programme, the Tutoring Project and the Education Engagement Programme all provide opportunities for schools to offer extra help to students in need.[vi]
BC also admires that since 2015, compulsory education starts at age 3.[vii]
While there are positive indicators of the performance of the Uruguayan educational system, the country’s educational sector does display issues. Problems often relate to socioeconomic inequalities and discrimination based on ethnicity.
In the PISA survey, Uruguayan students scored lower than the OECD average in reading, mathematics, and science. Socioeconomically advantaged students not only outperform their socioeconomically disadvantaged peers by 99 points, which is above the OECD average of 89 points, but are also largely secluded in different institutions. This means a socioeconomically disadvantaged child has a mere 14% chance of attending the same school as their more affluent peers.[viii]
Dropout rates are also a prominent issue in Uruguay: only 45 in every 100 people between 20-23 hold a secondary education diploma, one of the worst statistics in Latin America.[ix]
As Uruguay ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1990, the state must commit to carrying out its duties and obligations, which include the insurance of equal opportunity for all children. Thus, BC urges Uruguay to address all issues which prevent the realisation of the rights set out in the Convention.
[i] Santiago, P., et al. (2016), OECD Reviews of School Resources: Uruguay 2016, OECD Reviews of School Resources, OECD Publishing, Paris; 45.
[ii] Uruguay Education. “The Education System of Uruguay – Primary, Secondary and Higher.” www.uruguayeducation.info. https://www.uruguayeducation.info/education-system/education-profile.html. (Accessed August 14, 2023.).
[iii] Santiago, P., et al. (2016), OECD Reviews of School Resources: Uruguay 2016, OECD Reviews of School Resources, OECD Publishing, Paris; 49.
[iv] The Global Economy. “Uruguay Primary School Enrollment – Data, Chart.” The Global Economy. Accessed August 14, 2023. https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Uruguay/Primary_school_enrollment/.; The Global Economy. “Uruguay Secondary School Enrollment – Data, Chart.” The Global Economy. (Accessed August 14, 2023.). https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Uruguay/Secondary_school_enrollment/.
[v] Ibid.
[vi] Santiago, P., et al. (2016), OECD Reviews of School Resources: Uruguay 2016, OECD Reviews of School Resources, OECD Publishing, Paris; 19.
[vii] Uruguay. “National Report Submitted in Accordance with Paragraph 5 of the Annex to Human Rights Council Resolution 16/21* – Uruguay.” Uruguay, November 2018; 15.
[viii] OECD. “Country Note: Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) Results from PISA 2018.” OECD, 2019. https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/. (Accessed August 14, 2023.): 4-5.
[ix] Cura, Daniela , Nelson Ribeiro Jorge, Martín Scasso, and Gerardo Capano. “Challenges and Opportunities for Equity in Education: Main Barriers to Accessing and Using Ceibal Tools for Children and Adolescents in Uruguay.” Ceibal and UNICEF, 2022; 7.
The following report has been drafted by Broken Chalk as a stakeholder contribution to the Republic of Chile.
In Chile, the constitution and several education acts build up the legal framework of the Chilean education system. Based on these education acts, since 2003, primary and secondary education has been compulsory and free for children aged six and up. [i]
primary and secondary education are eight and four years, respectively. Secondary education is divided into two tracks: a general academic curriculum in the humanities and sciences and one with a vocational curriculum.[ii]
The Chilean educational system is decentralised and consists of three types of schools: municipal, private subsidised, and private non-subsidized. The Department of Municipal Education manages municipal schools, while private persons or institutions manage the other two kinds of schools.[iii]
77% of Chilean 3-5-year-old children are enrolled in early childhood education, although the figure is slightly below the OECD average in 2022.[iv]
Based on data collected by the World Bank, Chile impressively achieved a youth literacy of 99% and an adult literacy of 97% in 2021.[v]
Aligning with gender stereotypes, Chilean women are underrepresented in subjects like science, technology, engineering, and mathematics when entering tertiary education. Women accounted for less than 20% of new entrants in engineering, manufacturing, construction programs, and communication technologies. In comparison, they accounted for 83% of new entrants to the field of education, a sector traditionally dominated by women in Chile.[vi]
In Chile, there are significant differences in educational attainment across subnational regions due to uneven economic conditions and the pattern of internal migrations, resulting in differences in educational opportunities.[vii]
Although Chile was severely affected by the pandemic, the country learned from this experience and launched an initiative with UNESCO to strengthen teachers’ digital competence.[viii]
As Chile has signed and ratified the ICESCR, the CEDAW and the CRC, Broken Chalk urges Chile to eliminate gender stereotypes existing in society and make de facto changes.[ix]
[ii] OECD. “Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers OECD Activity Country Background Report for Chile,” November 2003. https://www.oecd.org/chile/26742861.pdf. (Accessed 11 September 2023).
The following report has been drafted by Broken Chalk as a stakeholder contribution to the The Socialist Republic of VietNam.
In education, Viet Nam has shown some outstanding achievements. The literacy rate is above 95%, and the country is committed to creating intellectual growth and development. Children start education at primary school from six years old until they are 11 years old. Primary education is compulsory and free of charge, resulting in a completion rate of 98%.[i]
After primary school, children move on to lower secondary school, completed by 87% of the children. Lastly, the children attend upper secondary school, completed by 59%. It is important to note that 92% of the wealthiest people end up in upper secondary school, and only 31% of the poorest people; this is a significant difference and shows the critical role of economic backgrounds in shaping educational outcomes.[ii]
Gender-based differences in completion rates are minimal, with very close rates for primary and secondary school. The most significant difference is in the completion rate for upper secondary education, where 51% of men and 65% of women graduate.
One of the reasons for Viet Nam’s high-quality education is the skilled teachers. Teachers receive extra training and are allowed to make the classes more engaging and exciting, improving the overall learning experience for students. Notably, the quality of education remains consistent across rural and urban schools. This is partly due to the government’s initiative to attract more teachers to remote areas by paying them more.[iii]
To continuously improve education, the Vietnamese Government mandates that all provinces invest 20% of their budget into education. The government has also created the ‘Fundamental School Quality Level Standards’, a framework that ensures universal access to education and guarantees minimum standards across all primary schools.[iv]
However, there are some problems in Vietnamese schools. Many LGBTQ students are harassed at school and do not see school as a safe space, sometimes leading LGBTQ students to drop out or even become homeless. Some problems arise due to natural disasters, which disproportionately affect students of poorer families.
Viet Nam has ratified most conventions such as CAT, ICCPR, CEDAW, CERD, CESCR, CRPD, and the CRC, accompanied by the two optional protocols (Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in armed conflict, and the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children child prostitution and child pornography). However, Viet Nam has not ratified the 1960 Convention on Discrimination in Education.[v]
Timor-Leste is a Southern East Asian country with a population of approximately 1 million people. It became an independent country in 2002 after being occupied by Indonesia for 24 years and after 400 years under Portuguese colonial rule (Cabral and Martin-Jones 2021). Timor-Leste is still recuperating from its violent past and faces significant challenges, as almost 42% of the population still lives below the poverty line (UNICEF 2023a).
Due to Indonesia’s invasion and mass destruction in 1999, by 2001, 90% of the country’s schools had been destroyed, and there was a significant loss of workforce in the educational sector. Since the restoration of its independence, Timor-Leste has made significant progress in rebuilding its educational system with the help of international donors (Quinn and Buchanan 2021; UNICEF 2023a). Education is mandatory and a constitutional right in Timor-Leste from age 6 to 14, and public school is free (UNESCO 2023; UNICEF 2019). The educational system includes two years of preschool, six years of primary school, three years of pre-secondary school, and three years of secondary education (Komatsu 2019). Approximately 86% of children are enrolled in public schools in Timor, while a small but privileged minority attends private schools, which offer a higher quality education (Soares 2023). Timor-Leste also achieved gender parity in primary and preschool education in almost all regions in the country (UNICEF 2023b).
The current constitution of Timor-Leste recognizes Portuguese and Tetum (the most spoken language in Timor-Leste and lingua franca) as the official national languages (Ogden 2017). Portuguese and Tetum are the designated languages for the first cycle of education (from grades 1 to 4) and Portuguese is the language of instruction for secondary school (Cabral and Martin-Jones 2021).
Nevertheless, educational challenges remain. To illustrate, school facilities are debilitated, 66% lack functioning sanitation, 40% lack drinking water and there is still an absence of child-friendly teaching methods. Additionally, education-related figures remain unsatisfactory as 37% of young people between 15 and 24 years of age remain illiterate and 70% of students from grade one do not meet the curriculum’s learning objectives (UNICEF 2023a). In fact, in 2020, 9291 children and 9986 adolescents were out of school (UNESCO 2023). According to UNICEF, only 20% of children of preschool age are enrolled in school, even though the gross enrolment rates in preschool increased by 25% in 2019 (UNICEF 2023a; UNICEF 2023b).
Difficulties in meeting learning objectives
Despite Timor-Leste’s efforts to rebuild its educational system, girls and boys are still not reaching the learning standards for their age, especially those living in rural areas and poor urban neighborhoods. This is often due to children’s lack of preparation for school, which leads to high repetition rates (24%) and children do not attend school regularly, often resulting in dropping out. According to the World Bank, in 2010, 70% of students in Grade 1, 40% of students in Grade 2, and 20% of students in Grade 3 could not read simple text passages. Also, almost half of the children between 3 and 18 years old with disabilities are not enrolled in school (UNICEF 2023b).
Students look out the door at Cassait Basic School, Ulmera Liquica, Timor-Leste, 2015 / Photo by GPE/Lucinda Ramos via Flickr
Teacher’s capacity-building and lack thereof
One of the greatest challenges that Timor-Leste faces concerns the need to replenish the teaching workforce and the lack of a trained and capable workforce in the public school system (Quinn and Buchanan 2021; Ogden 2017). In fact, many teachers lack qualifications for educating children, especially as many only completed secondary education and only half of the workforce had the minimum qualification for teaching (Quinn and Buchan 2021). UNICEF and the Portuguese and Brazilian governments have been assisting the Ministry of Education in improving the education system for students and primary school teachers (UNICEF 2019).
To build teachers’ skills and knowledge, UNICEF implemented initiatives that include inviting teachers from public schools to well-resourced schools to engage in peer learning and learn about good educational practices. This initiative follows the principles of Eskola Foun, a children-friendly approach to school that focuses on improving access to and quality of education in primary and pre-secondary Timorese schools. By building the capacity of teachers and school leaders, this program aims to promote a safe, healthy, and inclusive environment among schools in Timor-Leste, where students can thrive (UNICEF 2019).
Teachers admitted that before engaging in this program, they would teach their students following the education method they experienced when they were students, where the teacher just wrote the content on the board and students would copy it without engaging. After the peer learning sessions, teachers started implementing a more democratic teaching approach in public schools, where students are encouraged to ask questions and share their ideas with the teacher and fellow students. Also, teachers implemented new learning approaches such as taking their students outside the classroom to explore (UNICEF 2019).
Furthermore, the Ministry of Education has sought to build a strong workforce by implementing a teaching career regime to ensure teachers meet the required qualifications (Quinn and Buchanan 2021). The Ministry of Education also initiated a Curriculum Reform in 2013 for basic education intending to create a Timorese education system that focuses on the country’s culture, history and environment to strengthen national identity. Additionally, the new curriculum encourages using local examples as part of the learning process; for example, by encouraging teachers to use typical market shopping scenarios for calculation during math classes (Ogden 2017). However, the implementation of the curricular reform has often been inadequate due to miscommunication from government officials and the fact that many teachers are unfamiliar with the content (Ogden 2017). To face this challenge, the team responsible for the curricular reform has organized training sessions to clarify teachers’ questions.
Timor-Leste is facing another challenge since the number of teachers has not increased fast enough to follow the increase in school enrolment rates, overburdening teachers due to the increasing classroom sizes (Quinn and Buchanan 2021; Burns 2017). Additionally, teachers feel pressured due to the lack of resources and study material to teach the curriculum (Quinn and Buchanan 2021; Soares 2023).
Language policy in education
Language has been a contentious issue in Timor-Leste since its independence (Ogden 2017). The current curriculum stipulates Tetum as the first language of instruction, with the gradual inclusion of Portuguese throughout elementary school (Quinn and Buchan 2021; Ogden 2017). This language-progression approach aims to ensure that students are fluent in both Tetun and Portuguese by grade 6, as Portuguese is the language of instruction in secondary school. However, there is a lack of teachers fluent in Portuguese, as the language is spoken only by a minority of the population (Burns 2017; Cabral and Martin-Jones 2021). Therefore, there is still a significant need to instruct teachers in Portuguese.
Increasing literacy
Due to the violence unleashed by the Indonesian invasion, a fifth of the population was prevented from finishing basic education (Komatsu 2019). Due to this situation, the Timorese government implemented the Equivalency Education Program in 2010, which offered young people and adults the opportunity to pursue their education through a condensed curriculum equivalent to primary and pre-secondary education. Participants can learn different subjects, including mathematics, science, history, work skills, vocational training, Portuguese, Tetun and English. Anyone can enroll in the program if they are between 15 and 17 years old and did not attend primary or pre-secondary school for more than 12 months, or above 17 years old and did not complete primary education. The Program is free but, while it has a high enrolment rate, it is still below the number of uneducated youths and adults in Timor-Leste. To illustrate, the Equivalency Education Program had 1041 students enrolled in 2010, despite 200000 adults being eligible for it. Nevertheless, in a study conducted by Komatsu (2019), it was clear that many participants never lost their desire to learn, seek new knowledge, and build self-confidence.
Alongside this program, the World Bank funded the Second Chance Education Project to enable adults to complete their basic education between 2010 and 2017. The program incorporated the special needs of mature students and offered a flexible delivery method for students to learn linguistic, scientific, and personal development skills. According to the World Bank, 55% of the participants were women, and 197 students had graduated by 2017 (World Bank 2018).
Conclusion
To conclude, despite being a relatively new nation, Timor-Leste has undergone a lot of progress to rebuild its educational system. Nevertheless, some challenges remain that hinder children’s access to quality education. The government should continue investing in schools’ renovation to ensure sanitation, hygiene and functioning infrastructure to promote students’ health and well-being.
The Ministry of Education should also continue to assist teachers’ capacity-building, including their literacy in Portuguese. Training should be offered to aspiring teachers so these future professionals have the necessary instruction to excel at their jobs. However, alongside the teachers’ willingness to learn new teaching methods, they also need the appropriate resources to be able to implement the curriculum. These should be provided equally to all schools by the government and its partners. The Ministry of Education should prioritize the distribution of curriculum material to ensure that teachers are unified in their approach, providing high-quality education to students all over the country.
Also, due to Timor-Leste’s recent independence from foreign occupation, the Ministry of Education should focus on developing a school curriculum that focuses on local history and culture as an essential part of the national development agenda. The government should advocate more for preschool education, especially among disadvantaged communities. Ensuring that children have the opportunity to attend preschool could help them prepare for Grade 1, as the high repetition rate is often associated with poor levels of school readiness (UNICEF 2023c).
Lastly, the government should invest more resources and increase access to quality education and innovative learning environments for out-of-school children and adolescents to ensure their right to education. Education should also be easily available for adults who have not finished basic education. On the same note, the Ministry of Education should offer vocational training that enables young people and adults to increase their social capital skills for employment.
References
Burns, R., 2017. Education in Timor-Leste: envisioning the future. Journal of International and Comparative Education (JICE), pp.33-45.
Cabral, E. and Martin-Jones, M., 2021. Critical ethnography of language policy in the global south: insights from research in Timor-Leste. Language Policy, 20, pp.1-25.
Komatsu, T., 2019. Second-chance Education in Post-conflict Timor-Leste: Youth and Adult Learners’ Motives, Experiences and Circumstances (No. 182). JICA Research Institute.
Ogden, L., 2017. Competing visions of education in Timor-Leste’s curriculum reform. International Education Journal: Comparative Perspectives, 16(1), pp.50-63.
Quinn, M. and Buchanan, J., 2022. “A contribution to my country”: professional lives of teachers in Timor-Leste. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 42(3), pp.497-512.
The following report has been drafted by Broken Chalk as a stakeholder contribution to the fourth cycle of the Universal Periodic Review [UPR] for the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. As Broken Chalk’s primary focus is to combat human rights violations within the educational sphere, the contents of this report and the following recommendations will focus on the Right to Education.
Four decades of sustained conflict have heavily affected Afghanistan’s educational landscape. Recurrent natural disasters, chronic poverty, drought, and the COVID-19 pandemic have exacerbated the situation for Afghan children and have taken a toll on the fragile education system.[i]
The current Taliban policies governing education are enshrined in documents distributed to education officials across different levels within the movement.[ii] The Taliban education philosophy follows a unique mixture of Pashtun culture and Islamic law, highly prioritising religious education. However, the Taliban’s High Commission for Education also emphasises the need for “modern” education alongside religious teachings.[iii]
Although the overarching education policy acknowledges the need for secular subjects to be taught alongside religious ones in schools, these statements are directly followed by religiously motivated restrictions that imply that a series of topics included in the state curriculum should be eliminated and not taught (particularly about subjects such as history and biology).[iv]
The current practices and decisions on education established by the Taliban regime contradict national and international laws. Afghanistan’s Constitution (Articles 43-44), adopted in 2004, guaranteed equal access to education for boys and girls. The Education Law 2008 once again addressed equal rights for all children, free and compulsory education until ninth grade, and free education until attaining a Bachelor’s degree. At the international level, Afghanistan has ratified the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, Article 26 recognising the Right to Education) and other human rights treaties that reaffirm the Right to Education (i.e. CESCR Articles 13-14; CRC Articles 28-29; CEDAW Article 10).[v]
Gender inequality, poverty, and questionable legislation, combined with factors such as traditional gender norms and practices, a shortage of schools, insufficient transportation, and geographical barriers, have led to an estimated 3.7 million Afghan children being out of school, 60% being girls.[vi]
[i] UNESCO. “Protecting Education in Afghanistan.” Unesco.org. February 2, 2023. https://www.unesco.org/en/emergencies/education/afghanistan.
[ii] Amiri, Rahmatullah, and Ashley Jackson. “Taliban Attitudes and Policies towards Education.” ODI Centre for the Study of Armed Groups: (February 2021): 13. https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/taliban_attitudes_towards_education.pdf
[iii] Ibid.
[iv] Amiri and Jackson, “Taliban Attitudes and Policies towards Education”, 19.
[v] Rezai, Hussain. “The Taliban Rule and the Radicalisation of Education in Afghanistan.” GlobalCampus of Human Rights – GCHR. November 24, 2022. https://gchumanrights.org/preparedness-children/article-detail/the-taliban-rule-and-the-radicalisation-of-education-in-afghanistan-4945.html.
Image Source: free stock photos from https://unsplash.com/ by Robert Collins.
Introduction
In the heart of Southeast Asia, Thailand is a land of rich history and boundless potential. Its picturesque surface hides the challenges facing its education system, a cornerstone of its development.
Education is the key to progress, dreams, and prosperity in Thailand. However, this journey is riddled with obstacles, from insufficient funding to educational inequality, casting shadows on a brighter future. These challenges aren’t abstract; they affect students, parents, and policymakers daily. We will explore Thai schools, educators, and students, highlighting their resilience and determination.
Thailand is at a crossroads in its education system, with choices that will impact future generations. We delve into Thailand’s education system’s complexities, hopes, and aspirations, recognizing that in adversity, a nation’s greatest asset is its pursuit of knowledge.
Insufficient Funding
In Thailand, where the promise of education should be a beacon for the future, insufficient funding looms as a dark cloud over the nation’s schools. A simple search through recent articles reveals a complex web of challenges from this issue.
According to a report by the World Bank, the education system in Thailand is beset by poor management, inequality, and high teacher shortages[1]. The World Bank has stated that investments in key financial, human, and digital learning resources were especially low in disadvantaged schools (ranked at the bottom 25 percent of the PISA Economic, Social, and Cultural Status (ESCS) Index), private schools that receive more than half of their funding from government, and rural schools[2].
World Bank highlights the small school challenge in Thailand and options for quality education. It reveals that compared to international peers, Thai secondary schools are severely hindered by inadequate learning materials and physical infrastructure, which limits their capacity to provide quality instruction. More importantly, the Thai secondary school system is dramatically lacking in qualified teachers: secondary schools in rural areas are much more understaffed and under-resourced than their urban counterparts[3].
A more in-depth report by the National Education Commission for the fiscal year 2022-2023 reveals the extent of the problem. It states that Thailand’s education budget falls significantly short of international standards. Thailand allocates only 15% of its annual budget to education, while UNESCO recommends a minimum of 20%[4]. This shortfall in funding directly affects the quality of education and students’ overall well-being.
To gain a deeper insight into the challenges of rural education in Thailand, the story of Ms. Nongnuch, a passionate teacher in a bamboo school in Buriram province. Like many others, her school strives to provide quality education despite limited resources.
Ms. Nongnuch explained that the bamboo school has an innovative learning method focusing on sustainability and environmental conservation. The students do not have to pay tuition but must plant 800 trees and participate in 800 hours of community service per year. They also learn leadership, empathy and compassion through hands-on activities.
She also highlighted the need for more support from the government and society. “Our school is more than just a school that we all used to know. A school is a lifelong learning centre and a hub for social and economic advancement in the communities,” Ms. Nongnuch quoted the school founder, Mechai Viravaidya[5]. However, she said the school still faces difficulties securing funds, materials and facilities.
Moreover, the lack of recognition and appreciation is a constant struggle. “Others often look down upon our students because they come from poor families or remote areas,” Ms. Nongnuch revealed. This stigma not only affects their self-esteem but also their motivation to pursue higher education.
Perhaps most inspiring is the impact on students’ aspirations. Ms. Nongnuch shared stories of talented students who had overcome their hardships and achieved their goals with the help of the bamboo school. “It fills me with joy to see potential realized,” she said. “We are nurturing future leaders who will make a difference in their communities and beyond.”
As Ms. Nongnuch eloquently put it, insufficient funding is “a barrier that blocks the opportunities for our children.” It becomes increasingly clear that supporting rural schools like hers is not just a matter of charity; it’s about empowering the untapped potential of a nation’s youth.
Quality of Education
According to a report by the Asian Development Bank, Thailand’s basic education system faces several challenges, including the need to expand the supply of human capital to avoid the middle-income trap and the ageing society. The report highlights that despite the significant amount of resources spent on education, students’ learning outcomes are low and have not improved significantly in either national or international assessments. The performance of junior secondary school students in national examinations has declined, especially in mathematics and science. While the performance of senior secondary school students has improved slightly over the same period, the mean results for core subjects (mathematics, science, and English) were less than 50. This worrying figure is worsened by inequality in education quality across regions since the performance of secondary school students is lower in poorer, remote regions. The report argues that such poor learning outcomes are presumably due to two main reasons: the role of small schools and inefficient resource allocation for education in public spending[6].
As per the World Bank, various factors are influencing the quality of education in Thailand[7]. The report highlights the following key findings:
A lack of teacher training and professional development opportunities directly impacts the quality of instruction in classrooms.
Disparities in educational quality persist between urban and rural areas, where students in rural regions face limited access to qualified teachers and educational resources.
The curriculum was found to be outdated, with a need for reforms that align with 21st-century skills.
Student engagement and critical thinking skills remain underdeveloped due to traditional teaching methods.
The report recommends comprehensive teacher training programs, curriculum updates, and implementing student-centred teaching strategies to address these challenges.
The following views expressed by both a student and a parent tell us more about the quality of education in Thailand.
Nicha, a 16-year-old high school student, expressed dissatisfaction with the rigid curriculum. “I feel like I’m just following instructions from teachers,” she said. “I want to explore, not just obey.” Nicha also mentioned that the lack of creative learning opportunities made studying less interesting.
On the other hand, Mr. Somchai, a parent, shared his worries about the quality of education. “I wonder if my child is getting the skills they need for the future,” he said. “The education system seems old-fashioned, and it doesn’t prepare them for the changes of today’s society.”[8]
These voices resonate with a growing sentiment in Thailand: a need for a shift in the education paradigm. The emphasis on holistic development, critical thinking, and practical skills has become increasingly urgent. Thailand’s educational landscape stands at a crossroads, with the quality of education being a critical factor in determining the nation’s success in the global arena.
Image Source: Free stock photos from https://unsplash.com/t/3d-renders by Mario Heller
Educational Inequality
Educational inequality in Thailand is a pressing issue highlighted in recent news articles. According to a report by the World Bank, disparities in allocation and inefficiencies of investments across schools in Thailand have led to a decline in student performance in reading and a stagnation of scores in math and science[9]. The report further finds that investments in key financial, human, and digital learning resources were especially low in disadvantaged schools, private schools that receive more than half of their funding from the government, and rural schools.
Inequality between urban and rural areas is also a significant concern. Rural areas often lack basic infrastructure, qualified teachers, and educational resources, creating a significant gap in educational quality[10]. Ethnic minority communities face additional challenges, such as language barriers, discrimination, and limited access to quality education[11].
The Thai government must address these issues and create inclusive learning environments in schools to help improve Thailand’s education performance. A report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) that assesses Thailand’s education system and skills imbalances[12]. The report highlights several issues that contribute to educational inequality in Thailand:
Education quality, not quantity, is the main contributing factor to long-term economic growth.
Disadvantaged schools have low investments in key financial, human, and digital learning resources.
There is a skills mismatch between the demand in the Thai labour market and the supply of skilled workers.
There are disparities in resources allocated for teachers and other educational resources between schools with higher and lower socioeconomic status students.
The report recommends several policy interventions to address these issues, including improving teacher quality, increasing investment in disadvantaged schools, and enhancing the relevance of education to labour market needs. The report also emphasizes the importance of developing relevant skills from pre-primary to higher education levels.
However, not all students have equal access to quality education and opportunities to develop their skills. Nong, a stateless student from a hill tribe in northern Thailand, shared her challenges and aspirations for education[13].
She explained that she had to overcome many obstacles, such as poverty, discrimination, and language barriers. “I had to work hard to support my family and pay school fees,” she said. “I also faced stigma and prejudice because of my ethnicity and status. I had to learn Thai as a second language, which was difficult.”
Nong also expressed her gratitude for the support she received from teachers and mentors. “They encouraged me to pursue my dreams and helped me with scholarships and citizenship applications,” she said. “They also taught me about my rights and responsibilities as a citizen.”
Regarding her future plans, Nong said she wanted to become a teacher and help other disadvantaged children. “I want to give back to my community and society,” she said. “I believe education is the key to empowerment and opportunity.”
Nong’s story illustrates the resilience and potential of many ethnic minority and stateless students in Thailand. While they face many hardships, they also have educational hopes and ambitions. There is a need for more inclusive and supportive policies and practices that enable them to access quality education and realize their full potential.
Teacher Shortage
Thailand is facing a serious challenge in providing quality education to its students, especially in rural areas lacking qualified teachers. A Thai PBS World report highlights the teacher shortage in Thailand, particularly in rural areas. The report states that the shortage is most severe in the northeastern region of Thailand, where schools struggle to attract and retain qualified teachers[14]. This has resulted in uneven access to quality education, with students in rural areas being disadvantaged.
In addition, a report from The Bangkok Post indicates a severe shortage of science and mathematics teachers nationwide. The report states that students in these subjects face a challenging situation due to the dearth of specialized educators[15].
According to a World Bank study, around 64% of Thai primary schools are critically short of teachers, defined as having less than one teacher per classroom on average. The study estimates that as many as 110,725 out of 353,198 classrooms in Thai primary and secondary schools are critically short of teachers[16]. The study also reveals that eliminating teacher shortages in terms of quality and quantity would significantly improve student learning, and the impact would be most significant for lower-performing schools. Therefore, improving the quality of teachers and addressing the severe teacher shortages – especially for the vast number of small rural schools – should be at the centre of Thailand’s reform initiatives if the country is serious about tackling the widespread low education quality and high disparity in educational performance between socioeconomic groups.
To gain insight into the challenges of teaching in under-resourced schools, the case of Chaisit Chaiboonsomjit, a learner at Xavier Learning Community (XLC) in Chiang Rai, who served as a volunteer teacher at Zi Brae School in Chiang Mai[17]. His experience was eye-opening.
Chaisit shared his enthusiasm for teaching but also revealed the harsh conditions he faced. “The school is located on top of a mountain, and it takes eight hours to get there by car or motorcycle,” he said. “When it rains, the roads become impossible to pass, and teachers are often stranded.”
He explained how the lack of teachers affects students. “Most of our students are from the Karen hill tribe and study seven subjects provided by the Thai Education Ministry. But we only have 15 teachers for more than 200 students. They need more guidance and support to learn effectively.”
Chaisit also expressed frustration about teacher retention. “Many teachers leave after a short time because they can’t cope with the isolation and hardship,” he said. “This creates instability and inconsistency in the school system.”
In his heartfelt appeal, Chaisit emphasized the value of equal opportunity for education. “Every child, no matter where they are born, deserves a good teacher and a chance to pursue their dreams. We need more incentives to attract teachers to rural areas and more resources for teacher training.”
Chaisit’s story is a powerful illustration of the real-world impact of the teacher shortage crisis. It’s a challenge that affects educators and limits the educational potential of countless Thai students, especially those in remote areas.
Conclusion
Thailand’s education system, often celebrated for its potential, is ensnared in a web of challenges that demand urgent attention. This report has delved into five critical issues that cast shadows over the nation’s educational landscape:
Insufficient Funding: A chronic shortage of financial resources hampers the quality of education, hindering the nurturing of young minds.
Quality of Education: Rote memorization and standardized testing take precedence over critical thinking and creativity, leaving students ill-prepared for the complexities of the modern world.
Educational Inequality: Disparities in access to education and educational outcomes persist, affecting marginalized communities and perpetuating social divisions.
Teacher Shortage: A severe lack of qualified educators, particularly in rural areas and critical subjects, disrupts the learning process and hinders student development.
These challenges collectively pose a profound threat to Thailand’s education system and, by extension, its future. A nation’s strength lies in equipping its youth with the knowledge and skills to navigate an ever-evolving global landscape. However, the current state of Thailand’s education system impedes this aspiration.
Insufficient funding and the resultant resource shortages compromise the quality of education, leaving students ill-prepared for a future that demands adaptability, creativity, and critical thinking. Educational inequality perpetuates social divisions, limiting the nation’s capacity to harness the full potential of its diverse populace.
In conclusion, the challenges outlined in this report are not isolated issues; they are interconnected strands in a complex web. The future of Thailand depends on addressing these challenges with determination and foresight. A well-funded, inclusive, and quality education system is not just an investment in the present but a beacon guiding the nation toward a brighter, more equitable, and prosperous tomorrow. To ensure Thailand’s place on the global stage, these challenges must be met head-on, placing education at the forefront of the nation’s priorities.
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