Governmental Policies For Education In Bolivia 

Written by Pedro Fonseca

Introduction 

One of the particularities when analysing the Plurinational State of Bolivia is the state configuration that reflects the cultural, ethnic, and linguistic diversity of the country. This recognition and coexistence of multiple indigenous nations within Bolivian territory creates a series of specific challenges in the formulation of public policies. 

The fundamental principle guiding these particularities is the decolonisation and plurinationality of the Bolivian State. While decolonisation seeks to break away from colonial structures, which are the institutions, laws, and practices imposed during the colonial period and which continued to marginalise indigenous populations even after the country’s independence. Plurinationality refers to the recognition by the state of the equality and sovereignty of all indigenous nations and peoples within the country, rejecting the idea that the state should be homogeneous. (Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia, 2009, Article 9). 

The Bolivian constitution, based on the principles of decolonisation and plurinationality, acknowledges the ethnic and cultural diversity of 36 indigenous nations and peoples1, as well as other ethnic groups, thereby ensuring that the cultures of these nations are protected by the State (Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia, 2009, Articles 5, 30). Furthermore, the Bolivian constitution guarantees the self-management of indigenous peoples in their territories and the practice of their norms and customs (Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia, 2009, Articles 2). 

These rights are reflected in an educational plan that seeks to respect and promote the country’s cultural and linguistic diversity. Consequently, Bolivian education is guided by interculturality and bilingualism, promoting instruction in both Spanish and indigenous languages. 

However, it is important to emphasise that this context is relatively recent. The current Bolivian constitution was approved in 2009 amidst significant changes in Bolivian society, including the election of Evo Morales as president, the first indigenous person to be elected to the executive office in the country’s history. Indeed, when examining Bolivia’s political precedents, one observes a country marked by significant political instability and profound social inequalities. It is worth noting that Bolivia has experienced more than 190 attempted coups d’état since its independence in 1825. 

This article aims to present educational policies put in place throughout Bolivian history and compile data that showcase the results of these measures. 

Evolution of Bolivian Educational Policies 

  • Education Code of 1955 

Bolivian education in the mid-20th century was characterised by its centralisation, with low coverage in rural areas and high dropout rates. During this period, the main government policy was the 1955 Education Code, also known as Code 55.  

Through this decree, the government expanded education to rural areas, which until then had been restricted to small sectors of society (IIPP, 2023, p.56). Additionally, the Education Code and the Teacher Classification Law were enacted, creating a better structure and organisation for school administration. Among these structures was the creation of the Ministry of Education (IIPP, 2023, p.56). 

Code 55 aimed to create a uniform structure for the Bolivian educational system, with the goal of enabling better planning and implementation of public education policies (Suarez, 1986). To this end, approximately 23% of the country’s general budget was allocated to education (IIPP, 2023, p.59). 

Despite the efforts, the results achieved by the 1955 Education Code were far from those projected (IIPP, 2023, p.61). The formulation of Code 55 was carried out by a non-indigenous and urban elite. In other words, the project lacked historical adherence, as most of the population was composed of indigenous peoples living in rural areas. 

  • Educational Reform Program (1994) 

The 1994 Education Reform sought to deepen the specifically educational character of the 1955 Education Code (IIPP, 2023, p.74). Two points stand out in the 1994 Education Reform. First, Educación Intercultural Bilingüe (EIB), a demand of indigenous peoples since the 1980s and considered an “instrument of liberation” (Arispe, 2020). The EIB was implemented in 1988 with the financial and technical support of UNICEF through an agreement with the Ministry of Education (IIPP, 2023, p.80). The second point was the expansion of teacher training centers in the country, amplifying professional development for educators.  

 As a result of the reforms, data from the Instituto de Investigaciones Pedagógicas Plurinacional show that in 2004, the school enrolment rate increased by 60% at the initial level, 34.5% at the primary level, and 94.8% at the secondary level. In addition, the number of school units increased from 12,000 in 1997 to more than 13,000 in 2004. The same happened with the number of educational units, which reached nearly 15,000 (IIPP, 2023, p.79). 

Despite its importance, Educación Intercultural Bilingüe (EIB) has been criticised for the way it was conducted. The main argument is that it consists of disseminating teaching and “official knowledge” through native indigenous languages (IIPP, 2023, p.82). 

  • Education Law No. 70 “Avelino Siñani-Elizardo Pérez” (2010) 

During a period of political and economic instability at the beginning of the century, Bolivia saw the emergence of Evo Morales, a union and indigenous leader, as the main figure in the 2005 presidential race. Elected with more than half of the total votes, Evo Morales implemented a series of structural reforms in Bolivia, nationalising gas, one of the country’s main commodities, and enacting a constitutional reform that established the Plurinational State of Bolivia. 

In education, the main policy was the implementation of Law No. 70 “Avelino Siñani-Elizardo Pérez”, which aimed to promote intercultural and bilingual education, decolonise the curriculum—replacing the traditional curriculum, which often marginalised indigenous knowledge, with one that incorporates local cultural knowledge and practices—and reinforce community participation, aiming to increase the involvement of communities and local authorities in school management and educational decision-making (Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia, 2010). 

It is worth noting that, in addition to the Avelino Siñani-Elizardo Pérez Law, a series of other educational policies were formulated. According to the IIPP, Bolivian educational policy consists of a set of goods, services, and transfers that states mobilise to guarantee the right to education (UNESCO-IIPP, 2024). The table below highlights some of the current policies in place.  

Table 1. Policies according to focus of intervention. 

Current policies  Responsible agency 
Bono Juancito Pinto  Ministerio de Educación, Deportes y Culturas 
Programa Nacional de Alimentación Complementaria

Escolar (PNACE 2015-2020) 

 Ministerio de Educación, Deportes y Culturas 
Programa de Formación Complementaria para Maestras y

Maestros en Ejercicio (PROFOCOM) 

 Ministerio de Educación, Deportes y Culturas 
Programa Nacional de Alfabetización Yo Sí puedo  Ministerio de Educación, Deportes y Culturas 
Programa Nacional de Post Alfabetización  Ministerio de Educación, Deportes y Culturas 
Programa Centros de Apoyo Integral Pedagógico (CAIP)  Ministerio de Educación, Deportes y Culturas 
Centros de Apoyo Integral Pedagógico – Aula Hospitalaria  Ministerio de Educación, Deportes y Culturas 

Source: UNESCO (2024) 

Conclusion 

The results of the implemented policies have led to increased access to education and higher attendance rates among students. Data from the 2021 National Voluntary Report (UDAPE) show that, between 2015-2019, the attendance rate of the school-age population (4-17 years old) rose from 86% to 90.8%. The most significant increase in attendance rates was observed at the initial level, which rose from 36.5% to 61.3%, followed by the primary level, which increased from 96.9% to 98.7% (UDAPE, 2021, p.31). 

Another important piece of data is the number of enrolments. According to data from the General Directorate of Planning, in 2023, enrolment reached 2,951,164 students, of which 891,386 (30.20%) were from rural areas and 2,059,778 (69.80%) from urban areas. Regarding gender distribution, 1,445,375 (48.98%) were female and 1,505,789 (51.02%) were male (Ministerio de Educación, 2024). 

The Plurinational State of Bolivia has made substantial progress in providing education to its population. However, it still faces several challenges, including regional and geographic inequalities and income disparities. In addition to these issues, the country still grapples with a history of political instability that continues to affect the Bolivian people. 

 

Featured Photo by Alexander Grey on Unsplash

 

References 

Arispe, V. (2020). Educación intercultural: La perspectiva de los pueblos indígenas de Bolivia. Revista Caracol, (20), 167-186. Faculdade de Filosofia, Letras e Ciências Humanas da Universidade de São Paulo. https://doi.org/10.7440/res64.2018.03 

Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia (2009). Constitución Política del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia.  Retrieved from http://www.gacetaoficialdebolivia.gob.bo/app/webroot/archivos/CONSTITUCION.pdf 

Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia (2010). Ley de la Educación Avelino Siñani-Elizardo Pérez. Retrieved from https://bolivia.infoleyes.com/norma/2676/ley-de-la-educacion-avelino-si%C3%B1ani-elizardo-perez-070  

Instituto de Investigaciones Pedagógicas Plurinacional (IIPP). (2023). Hitos de la educación en Bolivia – Serie Histórica N° I. Retrieved from https://www.ine.gob.bo/publicaciones/hitos-educacion  

UDAPE (2021). Informe Nacional Voluntario Retrieved from https://www.udape.gob.bo/portales_html/ODS/28230Bolivia_VNR.pdf 

Ministerio de Educación (2023). Equipe de Estatística Retrieved from https://seie.minedu.gob.bo/reportes/estadisticas/grupo1/matricula  

UNESCO (2024). Bolívia. https://siteal.iiep.unesco.org/pais/bolivia#Caracterizaci%C3%B3n 

Suárez Arnez, C. (1986). Historia de la educación boliviana. Don Bosco. 

Beyond the Shadows of the Dark Web Playground: Online Child Trafficking

Written by Leticia Cox
Human trafficking, particularly targeting young kids via online platforms, is an increasingly disturbing issue worldwide. With the growth of the internet and social media, traffickers have found new ways to exploit, recruit, and manipulate children into various forms of exploitation, including labour and sexual exploitation. This trend requires a multi-faceted approach involving updated legislation, international collaboration on legal frameworks, law enforcement strategies, education programs, enhanced online safety measures, and broad public awareness.

 

Traffickers often use social media platforms, online gaming environments, and chat applications to connect with potential young victims. They use a variety of tactics, including grooming, pretending to offer romantic relationships, promising lucrative job opportunities, or even using the victims’ social media friends to gain trust.
In today’s digital age, children are exposed to technology at a younger age than before. Parents must be aware of the potential cybersecurity threats that can put their children at risk. They need to stay informed and take measures to protect children when they connect with the digital world.
According to a recent UN report, 80% of young people interact with AI multiple times per day. The increasing development of AI has led to numerous little-known applications that appear harmless, like uploading a photo to receive a modified version. However, when children upload their pictures, they have no control over which databases their photos will be stored in or how they might be used.

By raising awareness, implementing prevention programs, enforcing strict laws, and utilising technology responsibly, we can make a difference in the fight against online child trafficking and child privacy violations.

Worldwide Spread Victims
In North America, particularly the United States and Canada, online child trafficking is a sophisticated operation where traffickers employ advanced technologies, including the “Dark Web” and encrypted communication platforms. The primary challenges faced are the extensive digital landscape and the cross-jurisdictional nature of the internet.
In Mexico, a country that serves both as a source and a transit point for trafficked children, the increasing internet penetration has spurred the growth of online trafficking networks. Efforts in Mexico are concentrated on enhancing inter-agency coordination and strengthening law enforcement’s capabilities in digital forensics to effectively tackle trafficking cases.
Central American nations are hindered by limited resources and pervasive corruption, which impede effective countermeasures against online child trafficking. Traffickers in the region often use social media platforms to recruit and manipulate victims. However, international collaborations are increasingly supporting local efforts to improve response capabilities.
In South America, countries such as Brazil, Colombia, and Argentina are challenged by economic disparities and regional conflicts that heighten vulnerabilities among children. Traffickers exploit online platforms to target these at-risk populations.
Europe has also been significantly impacted by the menace of online child trafficking. The advent of technology and the internet has opened new avenues for traffickers to exploit vulnerable children. These perpetrators often use social media and the dark web to facilitate their illicit trade. The legal frameworks and protective measures vary significantly across European countries, influencing the effectiveness of the response to trafficking.
In Asia, the socio-economic conditions, including poverty, lack of education, and entrenched socio-cultural norms, contribute to the susceptibility of children to trafficking. The demand for cheap labour, sexual exploitation, and illegal adoption drives this nefarious trade across the continent.
Africa is a continent that has been deeply affected by the scourge of online child trafficking. With the rise of technology and the internet, traffickers have found new ways to exploit vulnerable children for profit. From the bustling markets of Nigeria to the remote villages of South Africa, children are being bought and sold online with alarming frequency.
The Oceania region is experiencing its own unique set of challenges and opportunities in the fight against online child trafficking. The vast and diverse geographical and cultural landscape of the region has a significant impact on the incidence and techniques of online exploitation. Although islands with limited resources and connectivity face unique challenges, the widespread internet access across the region also provides avenues for both legal and illegal activities.

How Online Platforms Facilitate Child Trafficking.
Child trafficking is a devastating crime that affects millions of children worldwide. While traditional methods of trafficking involve physical transportation and exploitation, the rise of online platforms has created new opportunities for traffickers to prey on vulnerable children.
Online platforms provide traffickers with a convenient and anonymous way to recruit, groom, and exploit children. Social media, messaging apps, and online forums are commonly used to lure victims by offering false promises of love, friendship, or opportunities for a better life. Once a child is in contact with a trafficker, they may be coerced into providing personal information, compromising photos or videos, or engaging in sexual activities.

I. Common Tactics Used by Traffickers in Key Industries.
In online child trafficking, traffickers deploy various manipulation tactics to exploit their victims. They often begin with grooming and building trust through flattery, gifts, and promises of a better life to lure children into risky situations.
Additionally, traffickers use coercion, employing threats and intimidation to control their victims, which may include threats of harm or exposure of sensitive information. Manipulation tactics like gaslighting and isolation are also common, as they undermine the victim’s reality and sever their connections to others, maintaining the trafficker’s control and ongoing exploitation.
Hospitality and Tourism Sector: With the rise of online booking platforms and social media, traffickers have found new avenues to exploit vulnerable individuals. They may use these platforms to advertise fake job opportunities or groom potential victims, making it easier to lure them into trafficking schemes.
In addition, the transient nature of the hospitality and tourism sector also makes it easier for traffickers to transport victims across borders or between tourist destinations, often under the guise of legitimate travel.
Entertainment and Adult Industries: Online child trafficking in the entertainment and adult industries is a grave and complex issue that exploits vulnerable minors through various digital channels. Traffickers employ sophisticated tactics to recruit, groom, and exploit children, often under the guise of legitimate opportunities in modelling, acting, or other entertainment sectors.
Traffickers often advertise fake job opportunities in modelling, acting, or dance that target teenagers eager for a break in the entertainment industry. These advertisements might appear on legitimate job sites, social media platforms, or through direct messaging. Once contact is established, traffickers use deceptive promises of fame and fortune to lure their victims into exploitative situations.
Traffickers utilise social media to find and groom potential victims. By creating fake profiles or using the profiles of previously trafficked victims, they build relationships with young people. They often study the interests, vulnerabilities, and social networks of their targets to tailor their approaches. Direct messaging features of social platforms are commonly used to establish contact and gain trust over time.

Through ongoing communication, traffickers establish a sense of trust and emotional connection with their targets. They may offer gifts, compliments, and promises of a better life and career opportunities. This grooming process may involve manipulating the child’s desire for affection, recognition, or escape from their current circumstances.
Initially, traffickers may request or coerce explicit photos or videos as part of the supposed audition or portfolio process. Over time, this can escalate to more explicit content, with traffickers using the initial images or videos as leverage (sextortion) to compel further participation under the threat of exposure.
Traffickers often attempt to isolate their victims from friends and family by sowing distrust or using the allure of an exciting, secretive career that others “wouldn’t understand.” This isolation makes it more difficult for victims to seek help or verify the legitimacy of the opportunities being presented.
As control over the victim solidifies, traffickers may move them into more overtly exploitative roles, including forced performances in adult entertainment or coercive participation in pornographic productions. These transitions are often facilitated by threats, manipulation, and escalating psychological control.
Online Gaming: Online gaming is a booming industry that, unfortunately, also provides a platform for illicit activities, including child trafficking. Traffickers can exploit online games and their associated social features as tools for manipulation, grooming, and eventually exploiting young players.
Traffickers often use the anonymous and interactive nature of online games to establish contact with potential victims. They may pose as fellow gamers, creating personas that appeal to younger players. Over time, they build trust through regular engagement, gifts (like in-game items or currencies), and seemingly genuine friendship. This grooming process may gradually escalate to more personal and potentially exploitative interactions.
Online games that feature chat rooms, private messaging, voice communication, and community forums provide multiple channels for traffickers to interact with minors. These features, while intended to enhance the gaming experience, can also be misused to foster secretive, exploitative relationships away from the oversight of parents or guardians.
The ability to create and manipulate avatars and profiles allows traffickers to conceal their true identities and intentions. They can present themselves as peers to their targets, reducing suspicion and barriers to conversation. This anonymity makes it difficult to trace and verify the identity of potential predators.
Traffickers may manipulate victims by promising or granting them in-game rewards or status. This can include exclusive access to certain game features, in-game currency, or help in advancing through game levels. Such rewards are often used as leverage to coax personal information or inappropriate images from the child.
By fostering an intense and isolated gaming relationship, traffickers aim to create a dependency that isolates the victim from real-world friends and family. This isolation can make the victim

more susceptible to manipulation and less likely to seek help or share their experiences with others.
Once a relationship and trust are established in the gaming environment, traffickers often attempt to move communication to other, less moderated platforms such as social media, instant messaging apps, or even face-to-face meetings. This step is aimed at further isolating the victim and escalating the control over them.
Traffickers may encourage victims to engage in risky behaviours, both in-game and in real life. This might include sharing sensitive personal information, sending images, or engaging in behaviours that break game rules, which can then be used to blackmail the victim.
To avoid detection, traffickers frequently use encrypted messaging apps, VPNs, and other tools that anonymise their online activities. These technologies make it harder for law enforcement to track their actions and protect potential victims.
In addition to these tactics, traffickers often use technology to their advantage. They may use encrypted messaging apps to communicate with their victims or dark web forums to advertise their services. By leveraging technology, traffickers are able to operate discreetly and evade detection by law enforcement.

II. Cryptocurrency and Payment Platforms
Cryptocurrency and payment platforms have become a significant concern when it comes to online child trafficking. The anonymity and ease of use that cryptocurrencies provide have made them a popular choice for those involved in illegal activities, including the buying and selling of children online. Payment platforms also play a crucial role in facilitating these transactions, allowing traffickers to easily transfer funds without detection.
One of the main challenges with cryptocurrencies is the difficulty in tracing transactions, making it harder for law enforcement agencies to track down and prosecute those involved in online child trafficking. Additionally, payment platforms that do not have robust security measures in place can be vulnerable to exploitation by traffickers, further complicating efforts to combat this crime.
Despite these challenges, there have been efforts to address the use of cryptocurrencies and payment platforms in online child trafficking. Some organisations have developed tools and technologies to help track and monitor suspicious transactions, while others have advocated for stricter regulations and oversight of these platforms to prevent their misuse by traffickers.
International cooperation is also crucial in combating the use of cryptocurrencies and payment platforms in online child trafficking. By sharing information and working together across borders, law enforcement agencies can better identify and dismantle networks involved in this heinous crime.

III. Dark Web Marketplaces and Forums
Dark Web marketplaces and forums play a significant role in the online child trafficking industry. These hidden corners of the internet provide a platform for traffickers to buy and sell children for exploitation. The anonymity and encryption of the Dark Web make it difficult for law enforcement to track down these criminals and rescue their victims.
One of the most disturbing aspects of Dark Web marketplaces is the ease with which traffickers can connect with buyers and sellers. These forums often have sections dedicated specifically to the buying and selling of children, with prices varying depending on the age, gender, and nationality of the victim. The lack of regulation and oversight on these platforms allows traffickers to operate with impunity.

Current Laws Addressing Online Child Trafficking
In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the need for stronger laws to address the issue of online child trafficking. Several countries have enacted legislation specifically targeting this heinous crime, with the goal of holding perpetrators accountable and protecting vulnerable children. These laws often include provisions for increased penalties for those found guilty of online child trafficking, as well as measures to improve prevention and education efforts.
One key aspect of current laws addressing online child trafficking is the focus on technology and online platforms. Many laws now require internet service providers and social media companies to take proactive steps to prevent their platforms from being used to facilitate child trafficking. Additionally, law enforcement agencies are increasingly utilising technology to track down and prosecute those involved in online child trafficking.
Advocacy and support services for victims of online child trafficking are also an important component of current laws. Victims of online child trafficking often suffer from severe psychological trauma, and it is crucial that they have access to the support they need to heal and recover. Many countries have established specialised support services for these victims, including counselling, medical care, and legal assistance.

While there is still much work to be done, current laws addressing online child trafficking represent an important step forward in the fight against this horrific crime, including the Child Online Protection Act (COPA) and The Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) in the USA, the RCMP’s National Child Exploitation Crime Centre (NCECC) in Canada, European Union Directive on Combating the Sexual Abuse and Sexual Exploitation of Children and Child Pornography and the Child Exploitation and Online Protection (CEOP) Command in the UK among others.

International Collaboration on Legal Frameworks On Online Child Trafficking. International collaboration on legal frameworks is crucial in the fight against online child trafficking. With the borderless nature of the internet, traffickers can easily exploit legal loopholes by operating across multiple jurisdictions.
By working together, countries can harmonise their laws and close these gaps to make it harder for traffickers to evade justice. This collaboration also allows for the sharing of information and best practices, leading to more effective enforcement efforts.
International efforts to combat online child trafficking have also been strengthened in recent years. Countries around the world are working together to share information, coordinate investigations, and prosecute offenders who operate across borders. This collaboration has led to the successful dismantling of numerous online child trafficking networks and the rescue of many victims.

One key aspect of international collaboration is the development of treaties and agreements that set common standards for combating online child trafficking. These agreements ensure that countries have a common legal framework for prosecuting offenders and protecting victims. For example, the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and its Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, provide a comprehensive framework for addressing trafficking offences and promoting international cooperation.
In addition to treaties, countries also engage in multilateral initiatives and partnerships to strengthen their responses to online child trafficking. For example, the Interpol Global Task Force on Human Trafficking coordinates international law enforcement efforts and provides support to countries in their investigations. These partnerships help build trust and cooperation among countries, making it easier to track down and prosecute traffickers operating across borders.
Another important aspect of international collaboration is the sharing of resources and expertise. Countries with more advanced legal systems and technology infrastructure can assist those with limited capacity. For example, developed countries can help train law enforcement agencies in developing countries to investigate online child trafficking cases and use digital forensics tools effectively.
Overall, international collaboration on legal frameworks is essential for effectively combating online child trafficking. By working together, countries can create a more cohesive and coordinated response to this crime, making it harder for traffickers to operate with impunity. Through treaties, partnerships, and resource sharing, countries can strengthen their legal frameworks and enforcement efforts, ultimately leading to better protection for children at risk of exploitation.

 

Digital Forensics and Cyber Investigations

Digital forensics and cyber investigations play a crucial role in combating online child trafficking. In the digital age, traffickers use various online platforms and technologies to exploit vulnerable children, making it difficult for law enforcement to track and apprehend them. Digital forensics involves the collection, preservation, and analysis of electronic evidence to uncover the truth behind these heinous crimes. Cyber investigations, on the other hand, focus on tracking down perpetrators and disrupting their operations in the digital realm.

 

Challenges in Prosecuting Traffickers
Prosecuting traffickers involved in online child trafficking presents a multitude of challenges that hinder the justice system’s ability to bring these criminals to justice. One of the main obstacles is the anonymity provided by the dark web and encrypted messaging apps, which make it difficult for law enforcement to track and identify perpetrators. Traffickers often use sophisticated technology to cover their tracks, making it challenging for investigators to gather evidence against them.
Another challenge in prosecuting traffickers is the international nature of online child trafficking. Perpetrators can operate from anywhere in the world, making it difficult for law enforcement agencies to coordinate efforts across borders. Different legal systems and jurisdictions further complicate the process of bringing traffickers to justice, as extradition and cooperation agreements may be lacking or ineffective.
Furthermore, the psychological effects of online child trafficking on victims can make it difficult for them to come forward and testify against their abusers. Many victims suffer from trauma, shame, and fear, which can prevent them from cooperating with law enforcement or participating in court proceedings. This not only hinders the prosecution of traffickers but also perpetuates the cycle of abuse and exploitation.
In addition to these challenges, the lack of resources and funding dedicated to combating online child trafficking poses a significant obstacle to prosecuting traffickers. Law enforcement agencies often lack the training, technology, and manpower needed to investigate and prosecute these crimes effectively. Without proper resources, cases can languish unresolved, allowing perpetrators to continue their criminal activities unchecked.
Despite these challenges, there is hope for progress in prosecuting traffickers involved in online child trafficking. By increasing awareness, funding, and international cooperation, law enforcement agencies can improve their ability to combat these heinous crimes. Additionally, advocating for policy changes and implementing stricter laws and penalties for traffickers can help deter future criminal activity and bring justice to victims of online child trafficking.

Prevention and Education Programs.
Combating child online trafficking is an urgent issue that requires coordinated efforts from various sectors, including law enforcement, educational systems, technology companies, and community organizations.

Educating children, parents and caregivers on online risks is crucial in today’s digital age, where online child trafficking is a growing concern. It is essential for parents to be aware of the potential dangers that their children may face while browsing the internet and engaging in online activities. By educating children on how to safely navigate the online world and recognise warning signs of potential predators, we can help prevent them from becoming victims of online child trafficking.
Education and prevention programs are crucial in raising awareness, equipping children, parents, and educators with the necessary tools to recognize and respond to threats, and ultimately safeguarding children from exploitation. Combating child online trafficking requires coordinated efforts from various sectors, including law enforcement, educational systems, technology companies, and community organizations.

Here are some strategies for effective prevention aimed at combating child online trafficking:
1. Digital Literacy and Safety Education
Educational programs aimed at children and teenagers should prioritise improving digital literacy by teaching them how to navigate online spaces safely. This includes understanding what personal information is and the risks that come with sharing it online, recognising suspicious behaviour and grooming tactics used by traffickers, utilising privacy settings and reporting mechanisms on social media platforms, and maintaining digital privacy and security to ensure online safety.
2. Curriculum Integration
Integrating internet safety and anti-trafficking content into the school curriculum can ensure that all students receive critical information. The curriculum should cover topics such as the nature of online trafficking, how it operates, the legal consequences of participating in or falling victim to online trafficking, and ways to safely intervene or seek help if they suspect trafficking activities.
3. Parent and Guardian Education
Programs that focus on online safety should target children as well as their parents and guardians. These programs should equip parents with the necessary knowledge and tools to monitor their children’s internet activities and discuss the risks associated with them. This includes conducting workshops on modern internet usage and potential hazards, providing guidance on how to have conversations on sensitive topics like sexual exploitation, and offering information on how to use monitoring tools and parental controls.
4. Professional Training for Educators and Social Workers
Professional training is crucial for teachers, school counsellors, and social workers to recognise signs of trafficking and to intervene appropriately. This training should include identifying indicators of children at risk or involved in online trafficking, protocols for reporting suspected trafficking and providing resources for supporting victims. It is important to equip educators and social workers with the necessary knowledge and skills to combat trafficking and protect vulnerable children.

5. Community Outreach Programs
Community outreach programs are an effective way to expand the scope of educational campaigns. These initiatives involve local businesses, community leaders, and youth organisations in raising awareness. Some ways in which these programs can be implemented include distributing informational materials, hosting community forums and discussions, and engaging local media to increase awareness.

6. Partnerships with Tech Companies
Collaborating with technology companies is crucial to creating safer online environments and developing platforms that discourage trafficking. This involves implementing stronger age verification systems, designing more effective algorithms to identify and report suspicious activities, and providing education and awareness resources directly within online services.

7. Online Campaigns and Apps
Utilising technology, such as online campaigns and apps, can be an effective way to combat trafficking by educating young people in engaging ways. The development of apps that offer quick and anonymous reporting tools, educational games and scenarios to practice safe online behaviours and connect children with help and resources without stigma can all play a role in fighting against trafficking.

8. Evaluation and Adaptation
The effectiveness of these educational and prevention programs must be continually evaluated and adapted based on emerging/new trends in online behaviour and trafficking techniques. Regular updates ensure they remain relevant and effective.
Through comprehensive and inclusive educational strategies, communities can better protect children from the dangers of online trafficking. Such efforts not only prevent trafficking but also empower young individuals with the knowledge and skills to navigate digital worlds safely.
Technology plays a dual role in online child trafficking, as both a tool for traffickers to exploit children and a resource for law enforcement to track down and rescue victims. By staying informed about the latest developments in technology and online platforms used for child trafficking, we can better equip ourselves to combat this heinous crime and protect children from harm.

Success Stories In Combating Online Child Trafficking Globally
Success stories in combating online child trafficking globally have shown that with concerted efforts and collaboration, significant progress can be made in protecting vulnerable children.
One such success story is Operation Cross Country, an annual operation led by the FBI in collaboration with international law enforcement agencies. This operation has resulted in the rescue of hundreds of children and the arrest of numerous perpetrators involved in online child trafficking networks.
Another success story is the implementation of the Child Rescue Alert system in the UK, which has proven to be an effective tool in quickly locating and rescuing abducted children. This system sends out alerts to the public, asking for their help in locating missing children, and has led to successful recoveries in several cases of online child trafficking.

Furthermore, the Global Alliance Against Child Sexual Abuse Online, a coalition of international organisations, law enforcement agencies, and technology companies, has been instrumental in combatting online child trafficking. Through their collaborative efforts, they have been able to identify and shut down numerous online platforms used by traffickers to exploit children, as well as rescue victims and bring perpetrators to justice.
In addition, the adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) by many countries has provided a legal framework for protecting children from all forms of exploitation, including online child trafficking. This international treaty sets out the rights of children to be protected from violence, abuse, and exploitation and provides guidelines for governments to implement policies and laws to prevent and combat online child trafficking.
Overall, these success stories demonstrate that by working together at both national and international levels, significant strides can be made in combating online child trafficking and protecting vulnerable children. It is crucial for governments, law enforcement agencies, NGOs, and the private sector to continue to collaborate and innovate in order to effectively address this growing threat to children’s safety and well-being.
Legal implications and policies surrounding online child trafficking are complex and constantly evolving. Law enforcement agencies around the world need to work to strengthen their capabilities to investigate and prosecute traffickers operating on the Dark Web.

 

Featured Image created by Leticia Cox

Sources:
https://www.europol.europa.eu/media-press/newsroom/news/288-dark-web-vendors-arrested- in-major-marketplace-seizure
https://humantraffickingfront.org/dark-web-hides-csam/
https://www.dhs.gov/news/2024/04/17/fact-sheet-how-dhs-combating-child-exploitation-and- abuse
https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/programs/internet-crimes-against-children-task-force-program
https://www.securitepublique.gc.ca/cnt/cntrng-crm/chld-sxl-xplttn-ntrnt/actns-nln-chld-sxl- xplttn-en.aspx
https://reliefweb.int/report/world/asia-pacific-legal-guide-child-trafficking
https://eastasiaforum.org/2024/02/20/tackling-technology-abuse-and-human-trafficking-in- asean/
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42448-021-00087-5
https://www.aseanact.org/story/use-and-abuse-of-technology-in-human-trafficking-southeast- asia/

https://www.unicef.org/eap/media/4706/file https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-trafficking-in-persons-report/south-africa
https://www.end-violence.org/sites/default/files/paragraphs/download/Disrupting Harm – Data-
Insight 4 – Legislation addressing OCSEA.pdf\

https://www.weprotect.org/ https://missingpersons.police.uk/en-gb/child-rescue-alert# https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/operation-cross-country-2022

The Impact of the Humanitarian Crisis in Gaza on Educational Rights

Written by Alessia Bruni 

The humanitarian crisis in Gaza continues to disrupt the lives of many residents severely, specifically affecting the educational rights of Palestinian children. The right to education is a fundamental right that all children should enjoy, however, for many children and students living in the Gaza Strip, school has been inaccessible due to the damage to their infrastructure and the threat of violence. The crisis disrupts the children’s ability to gain quality education, creating long-term obstacles. 

The Crisis in Gaza  

Recent reports calculate that over 625,000 children in Gaza, including 300,00 enrolled in the United Nations Relief and Works Agency, schools have been directly impacted by the ongoing humanitarian crisis. (United Nations Relief Works Agency 2024) These families and their children live in a constant state of fear due to the ongoing threats of violence by military operations, and this causes a lack of access to essential services, with education being the most predominant. Many of the schools that allow access to education have been destroyed or damaged by airstrikes at an alarming rate of 90%, leaving families to be displaced. (Rose and Sayed 2024) Our normalcy of everyday life is easily sustainable, whereas, for Palestinian children, normalcy is impossible to sustain. Having to rebuild the educational system will leave the children losing either 2 years of education in case a ceasefire was to be drawn, and if not, an alarming 5 years of education could be lost. (Rose and Sayed 2024)  

 

Destruction of Infrastructure  

The humanitarian crisis in Gaza is not only reflected in the multitude of deaths of children but also extends to the fate of the children who do survive but are left with the aftereffects of the destruction, leaving their opportunities, specifically educational opportunities, in jeopardy. The Education Cluster deployed a satellite-derived damage assessment in the Gaza Strip to assess the damage to infrastructure and educational facilities. The results of the satellite images revealed that hundreds of the buildings were destroyed. To further highlight these atrocities, under International Humanitarian Law, any direct attack against a school is constituted as a violation, specifically regarding children in conflict. (Inger Ashing, Sherif, and Egeland 2024) This highlights the severity of the lives and educational opportunities of Palestinian children.  

 

The extent of the destruction underscores the lasting and devastating impact on educational access for current and future generations. The significant damage to these schools places educational opportunities in a state of crisis; once hostilities cease, children may find themselves without any schools to attend. Furthermore, rebuilding the infrastructure could take years or may even prove impossible. (United Nations 2024) The destruction of school facilities not only postpones formal education but deprives children of a safe learning environment. Schools are vital for fostering social skills and supporting emotional and educational development. (UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 2024) The absence of adequate infrastructure has forced students into temporary shelters, where they face numerous challenges, including overcrowding, interruptions, and limited support and resources. (Hinnawi 2024)  

 

The Psychological Damage on the Children and Educators  

It is important to draw attention to the significant psychological impact of the humanitarian crisis on Gaza’s children. It is calculated that over 1.2 million children live in a constant state where their safety is compromised due to threats or violence, this creates effects that are lasting to their well-being. (Hinnawi 2024) The impact of the crisis has left nearly all children in the Gaza Strip to require mental health support due to the atrocities and the lasting trauma due to the multitude of loss of their friends, homes, schools, and family. (Rose and Sayed 2024)  

“Education has been under relentless attack in Gaza and the West Bank, with hundreds of thousands of children deprived of their right to education, tens of thousands of teachers having lost their jobs, and hundreds of schools in the Gaza Strip totally or partially destroyed” (Education International 2024) The ongoing conflict continues to disrupt the lives of the children with ongoing trauma, contributing to the ability of the children to engage in educational opportunities meaningfully. Furthermore, many of the educators face the same trauma that the children of Gaza experience while having to work under strenuous conditions to provide education. This creates a disruptive cycle of learning as both the educators and students are subjected to severe psychological trauma due to the ongoing trauma and instability. (Graham-Harrison and Mousa 2023)  

 

The Generational Impact  

The long-term implications of the current crisis in Gaza on education are profound, leaving many students without access to schooling now and potentially in the future if conditions do not improve. The loss of education raises the alarming prospect of a “lost generation,” as prolonged school absences deprive children of the essential skills and knowledge needed for meaningful economic and social contributions. (Rose and Sayed 2024) Education offers a vital pathway for children to improve their circumstances and provides individuals from impoverished backgrounds a chance to break free from their limitations and establish stability. The erosion of educational opportunities not only jeprodises the future of these children but also threatens the overall future of Palestinian society. (Ali 2024) 

 

The degradation of educational opportunities in Gaza has far-reaching implications that extend beyond academic knowledge, encompassing the essential values and aspirations that a school environment fosters. Interviews conducted by aid workers have revealed that many children in Gaza are grappling with fundamental questions regarding the concepts of equality and human rights. (United Nations Relief Works Agency 2024) These inquiries arise from the stark contradiction between these ideals and the pervasive violence and trauma they endure. If ongoing loss of hope, intervention, and values persists, it may rise to significant social challenges in the future. (UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 2024)   

 

The Role of International Aid  

International organisations and governments must prioritise the right to education in their response to the ongoing crisis, particularly through the provision of humanitarian aid. The United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) has taken significant steps to address this issue by calling for an immediate ceasefire and urging international organisations to increase funding for their “Education in Emergencies” program. This initiative provides non-formal education, mental health support, and temporary learning spaces. (United Nations Relief Works Agency 2024) A commitment to educational recovery is essential to safeguard the future of children in Gaza. This commitment should encompass measures that ensure safe learning environments during emergencies and humanitarian crises. This will help foster hope and stability for Palestinian youth. (Hinnawi 2024) 

 

Conclusion  

The humanitarian crisis in Gaza underscores the profound disruptions to both educational opportunities and humanitarian rights, leading to enduring and detrimental effects on physical infrastructure and mental health. Immediate intervention and assistance are essential, as the cycle of trauma and interrupted education is likely to escalate, resulting in long-term repercussions for the Palestinian children and the wider community. Education is a fundamental human right, and by prioritising aid initiatives, the international community has a critical opportunity to alleviate the impacts of the current crisis. Restoring educational access can provide the children of Gaza with a sense of normalcy, hope, and stability, which is crucial for both their present circumstances and future prospects. 

 

References  

Ali, Eman Alhaj. 2024. “In Gaza, education is resistance.” Al Jazeera, August 12, 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2024/8/12/in-gaza-education-is-resistance. 

Education International. 2024. “War and trauma: Addressing mental health in Palestine.” Education International, July 8, 2024. https://www.ei-ie.org/en/item/28781:war-and-trauma-addressing-mental-health-in-palestine. 

Graham-Harrison, Emma, and Aseel Mousa. 2023. “War’s toll on education in Gaza casts shadow over children’s future.” the Guardian, December 18, 2023. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/dec/18/wars-toll-on-education-in-gaza-casts-shadow-over-childrens-future. 

Hinnawi, Mohammed. 2024. “UNRWA Education activities in Gaza.” UNRWA EDUCATION RESPONSE IN GAZA, June 2024. https://www.unrwa.org/sites/default/files/content/resources/education_response_in_gaza_graphic_brief.pdf. 

Inger Ashing, Inger, Yasmine Sherif, and Jan Egeland. 2024. “Education Under Attack in Gaza, With Nearly 90% of School Buildings Damaged or Destroyed.” Save The Children, April 16, 2024. https://www.savethechildren.net/blog/education-under-attack-gaza-nearly-90-school-buildings-damaged-or-destroyed. 

Rose, Pauline, and Yusuf Sayed. 2024. “Palestinian Education ‘under Attack’, Leaving a Generation Close to Losing Hope, Study Warns.” University of Cambridge. September 25, 2024. https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/palestinian-education-under-attack-leaving-a-generation-close-to-losing-hope-study-warns. 

United Nations. 2024. “UN experts deeply concerned over ‘scholasticide’ in Gaza.” UN experts deeply concerned over ‘scholasticide’ in Gaza OHCHR, April 18, 2024. https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/04/un-experts-deeply-concerned-over-scholasticide-gaza. 

United Nations Relief Works Agency. 2024. “Education Under Attack.” Education Under Attack UNWRA, September 9, 2024. https://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/photos/education-under-attack. 

UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2024. “UN Human Rights Office – OPT: The UN Human Rights Office condemns Israeli Defense Force’s Strike on Al Tabae’en School in Gaza City – occupied Palestinian territory.” ReliefWeb, August 10, 2024. https://reliefweb.int/report/occupied-palestinian-territory/un-human-rights-office-opt-un-human-rights-office-condemns-israeli-defense-forces-strike-al-tabaeen-school-gaza-city?_gl=1*1gb7d68*_ga*MTczOTcwNTI5NC4xNzE3NTA5ODY5*_ga_E60ZNX2F68*MTcyMzU1MDMzNi4yMi4xLjE3MjM1NTAzMzguNTguMC4w. 

Cover Image by Honsy Salah, Gaza, Palestine, 2011, photograph, Pixabay, https://pixabay.com/photos/gaza-palestine-poverty-child-boy-6782232/ 

 

Housing challenges for international students in the Netherlands (in comparison to Dutch students)

The Netherlands has major challenges in the housing market, mainly because of scarcity. Finding affordable and decent accommodation can be a struggle, especially when not native to the language or common from a different country. International students are particularly vulnerable because of the discrimination and exploitation they face in the current housing market.   

The Problem: 

The main issue is the severe shortage of suitable housing options, especially for (international) students. Exploitation and deception are commonly faced when international students try to find a suitable housing situation.  

Various sources explain why internationals are more vulnerable than Dutch students: 

  • Lack of awareness and cultural differences: 
  • International students often struggle to navigate the local student culture, making it harder for them to recognize warning signs and easier to become victims of exploitation. 
  • Language barriers: 
  • Constantly speaking English at home is often the reason why Dutch students are less likely to select international housemates, contributing to social clustering. 
  • Preference for familiarity: 
  • Dutch students may prioritize living with friends from high school or their student association, making them less likely to welcome new international students. 
  • Shorter stay duration: 
  • International students typically stay for shorter periods. Landlords (and housemates) might prefer tenants with longer commitments. 
  • Practical considerations: 
  • Landlords and housemates may exclude international students from their selection process to manage overwhelming responses to housing advertisements. 

Unveiling Scammer Tactics: 

Scammers take advantage of the housing crisis, employing various (although often similar) tactics to deceive potential renters: 

  • Urgent payment requests: 
  • Scammers pressure individuals to pay immediately by claiming that delaying payment could result in losing the opportunity. 
  • False identification: 
  • To appear trustworthy they often offer false identification, and scammers use stolen or forged identity documents. 
  • Posing as current tenants: 
  • Pretending to be current occupants, scammers assure prospective tenants of the landlord’s reliability, enhancing their credibility. 
  • Emotional manipulation: 
  • Making up sympathetic stories, scammers exploit emotions to facilitate deception. 
  • Flexibility with preferences: 
  • Scammers are often very flexible and easily adapt to tenants’ preferences (regarding lease start dates or furnishing options) to gain trust. 
  • Advance payment requests without viewing: 
  • Scammers demand upfront payments before viewing the property and often request the money to be transferred to foreign accounts or through specific payment links. 

Awareness of these tactics empowers renters to take precautionary measures against scams and safeguard themselves effectively. 

 

Annotated bibliography: 

Everyone in the housing market may be affected by enormous scarcity, but international students are even more vulnerable due to increased desperation in their housing search. 

University of Groningen https://ukrant.nl/magazine/sorry-no-internationals-alleen-nederlanders-krijgen-een-kamer/ 

Reasons for not wanting internationals: 

Language barrier: Dutch students may struggle with the idea of constantly speaking English at home. After a long day of studying or working, they want to relax, which can be made difficult by the need to communicate in another language. 

Cultural differences: It is suggested that international students may not be familiar with the local student culture, such as attending housing interviews and joining student associations. This can lead to a sense of alienation between international and Dutch students. 

Preference for acquaintances: Dutch students sometimes prefer to live with friends from high school, making them less inclined to welcome new people, such as international students. 

Short stays: International students often stay for a shorter period, which some houses prefer to avoid. Landlords often prefer housemates who will stay for a longer period. 

Practical considerations

Due to the large number of responses to advertisements for available rooms, landlords may choose to exclude international students to limit the selection and keep the process manageable. 

Unfamiliarity and prejudice

Dutch students may have a distorted view of international students and may not be aware of the challenges they face in finding housing. Prejudices may exist that hinder the acceptance of international students. 

https://www.parool.nl/nederland/internationale-studenten-slachtoffer-van-oplichting-door-woningnood-er-zitten-schrijnende-gevallen-tussen~ba41b0d6/?referrer=https://www.google.com/ 

The main idea of the article is that international students in the Netherlands often face abuse by landlords and difficulties in finding affordable and decent housing. This is supported by reports to the National Student Union (LSVb) and the Amsterdam Student Union ASVA, which point to discrimination, fraud, and neglect of housing. The shortage of student housing is emphasized, especially in Amsterdam, and calls are made for targeted government investments to address this problem. 

https://nos.nl/artikel/2441000-1620-euro-kwijt-maar-geen-kamer-studenten-extra-kwetsbaar-voor-oplichting-door-kamernood 

The main idea of the article is that students in the Netherlands, especially international students, are particularly vulnerable to fraud due to severe housing shortages. Due to the scarcity of student housing and the increase in the number of students, they easily fall victim to scammers who place fake advertisements for housing. These scammers use various tactics to pressure students and gain their trust, such as providing false identification and telling sad stories. Despite efforts by administrators of Facebook groups and warning groups on the platform, fraud remains a major problem. 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HxfR376lPMs 

Fang Cheung saw so much fraud happening that she started a Facebook group to warn house hunters. 

https://lsvb.nl/2021/10/22/woningnood-maakt-internationale-studenten-slachtoffer-van-misbruik-en-oplichting/ 

International students are victims of abuse and fraud due to the severe shortage of student housing. Many international students search for a room from abroad, so they may not always have the opportunity to physically view the room and struggle to find reliable landlords. Landlords take advantage of the vulnerable position of international students by refusing repairs, asking for excessively high rent, and threatening eviction. International students often have no alternative and must accept poor conditions or risk becoming homeless. Targeted investments in student housing are needed to address the shortage of rooms, but there is still a lack of real action from the national government. 

https://vizieroost.nl/housing-discrimination/ 

The municipality of Nijmegen collaborates with Radboud University and HAN University of Applied Sciences to address housing discrimination against international students. At Vizier, people can report discrimination and receive advice on how to deal with it. Vizier provides support in finding a solution, helps with complaints, and can assist with filing a report with the police if necessary. By reporting discrimination, you not only help yourself but also contribute to making the problem visible to the authorities so that targeted action can be taken. Examples of housing discrimination include charging higher rent, deposit, or mediation fees to international students because of their nationality, which is against the law. 

https://nos.nl/artikel/2246698-internationale-studenten-makkelijke-prooi-kamerzwendelaars 

https://dutchreview.com/expat/rental-housing-scams-netherlands/ 

NOS) 

According to experts, these are tactics that scammers often use: 

  • Scammers put pressure on people. They say: if you wait to pay, then the room will be taken by someone else, so pay quickly. 
  • They often offer to provide identification, making it seem reliable. But they use (hacked) identity cards of others for this purpose. 
  • They often initially pose as the current resident, who then emphasizes that the landlord is really trustworthy. 
  • They say they are abroad, so you cannot view the property. And often accompany this with a sad story, such as their wife being treated there for illness or helping at the border with Ukraine. 
  • The scammers are usually very accommodating to your wishes. Later or earlier in the property? No problem. Preferably unfurnished? That’s also possible. 
  • They ask (in most cases) if the money can be transferred before the property can be viewed. The money must be sent to a foreign account or via a specific payment link. 

 

Featured Photo by Breno Assis on Unsplash

 

 

The Right to Education Act in India: Success and Challenges in Implementation

By Mahnoor Ali

The Right to Education (RTE) Act, officially known as the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act is a landmark piece of legislation in India that requires free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14. It was enacted by the Parliament of India on August 4, 2009, and came into effect on April 1, 2010. The Act is a significant step towards achieving universal primary education and ensuring that every child has access to a quality education.[1] However, in addition to its successes, the RTE Act has faced numerous challenges during its implementation. This article covers the RTE Act’s historical background, key provisions, success, and challenges in India, offering a broad picture of the legislation’s influence on the nation’s educational system.

Historical Context of the Right to Education in India

In the 86th Amendment Act of 2002, free and compulsory education for children was intended to become a basic right. In October 2003, a draft of the Free and Compulsory Education for Children Bill was created and underwent revision in 2004. In June 2005, the ‘Right to Education’ Bill was written by the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) committee and submitted to the Prime Minister, the National Accountability Committee (NAC), and the Ministry of HRD. But, in July 2006, the bill was rejected by the planning commission and finance committee because of a lack of funding. States were given a sample bill to make the required arrangements. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Bill, 2008, was ratified by the President in August 2009 after passing both Houses of Parliament in 2009. On April 1, 2010, the RTE Act and Article 21-A went into force.[2]

Key Provisions of the Right to Education Act (2009)

Some of the key provisions of the Right to Education Act include:

  • Free and Compulsory Education: The Act emphasises that no child should be denied education because of financial limitations by requiring children between the ages of 6 and 14 to receive free education.[3]
  • Infrastructure Standards: Classrooms, restrooms, and drinking water facilities must all adhere to a set of requirements for schools.
  • Reservation in Private Schools: The Act mandates that private schools set aside 25% of their seats for students from economically disadvantaged groups and economically weaker sections (EWS) in order to foster inclusion.[4]
  • Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation: The RTE Act promotes child-friendly, comprehensive assessment techniques that support lifelong learning while discouraging the use of traditional pass/fail tests.
  • Special Provisions for Marginalised Groups: The Act aims to provide protection and additional support for children from marginalised backgrounds, such as scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, and children with disabilities, acknowledging the special problems they confront.

Successes of the Right to Education Act

The RTE Act has produced a number of beneficial results since it was put into effect, most notably a rise in enrollment rates nationwide. The reservation in private schools has brought economically disadvantaged kids into mainstream education, resulting in a notable increase in the integration of underprivileged communities.

  • Enrollment and Inclusivity: The data indicates that enrollment rates have significantly improved, particularly for girls and kids from disadvantaged families. As more girls enrol in basic and secondary education, the gender gap has substantially closed.[5]
  • Infrastructure and Teacher Quality: While the effects vary from state to state, some areas have witnessed increases in student-teacher ratios and greater infrastructure, guaranteeing that students have access to learning environments that are better suited to high-quality education.[6]
  • Public-Private Synergy: By requiring private schools to allow underprivileged pupils, the Act has contributed to a decrease in socioeconomic segregation in urban schools. Not only has this integration given disadvantaged children options, but it has also sparked some accountability and improved the standard of instruction.

Challenges in Implementing the Right to Education Act

Despite the success that the RTE Act had, its wider goals have been hampered by the difficulties in implementing it. Some of the major challenges faced in the implementation of this Act are discussed below:

  • Infrastructure Gaps: Inadequate infrastructure continues to plague many public schools, particularly those in remote areas. Some schools have struggled to satisfy RTE criteria due to a shortage of functional restrooms (particularly for ladies), poorly kept premises, and inadequate instructional resources. While urban areas have experienced advancements, rural schools frequently fall behind.
  • Teacher Shortages and Quality: Lack of qualified instructors, especially in rural regions, is a major problem. Several schools continue to fall short of the required teacher-to-student ratio. In addition, there is a clear disparity in the quality of instruction, with underqualified or poorly trained teachers having a negative impact on student achievement. Lack of accountability and absenteeism exacerbate this problem.
  • Private Schools’ Non-Compliance: Despite the RTE’s demand that private schools reserve 25% of their enrollment for students from underprivileged families, many establishments choose not to comply. Many private schools refuse to accept the necessary number of EWS pupils, either on purpose or due to ignorance. They cite a variety of operational issues, such as financial hardship.[7]
  • Shortcomings in Monitoring and Evaluation: The absence of strong systems to keep an eye on and assess how the Act is being implemented is another serious problem. Ineffective implementation and monitoring are caused by inconsistent data and a lack of collaboration between state and federal entities.
  • Socioeconomic Barriers: Children’s access to education is nevertheless hampered by socioeconomic issues like poverty, child labour, and cultural views despite of ‘free’ education. Dalit[8] children continue to face social exclusion due to caste discrimination, which is still a significant barrier for underprivileged people, particularly in rural areas.
  • COVID-19’s effects and the digital divide: The COVID-19 pandemic made already-existing disparities in educational access worse. Children from low-income households experienced a digital divide as a result of the change to online learning due to lack of access to computers, smartphones, or reliable internet connections. This brought to light the shortcomings of the RTE Act, which does not adequately address the growing significance of digital infrastructure and literacy in contemporary schooling.

Policy Recommendations

A coordinated effort from several stakeholders, including the public and private sectors, governments, and educational institutions, is necessary to overcome these obstacles. Important suggestions consist of:

  • Infrastructure Investment: The government needs to put the allocation of funding for improvement of school infrastructure as their top priority especially in rural areas. Sanitation, energy, and digital infrastructure also need to be given special consideration.
  • Teacher Training and Accountability: To raise the calibre and attendance of teachers, rigorous accountability procedures and ongoing professional development are required.
  • Improved Monitoring and Evaluation: To guarantee adherence to RTE regulations, it is imperative to fortify the monitoring structures at the federal and state levels. A more transparent process and data-driven decision-making ought to direct changes to policies.
  • Digital Inclusion: The digital divide needs to be addressed especially after the COVID-19. In order to make education egalitarian in the digital age, it is imperative that low-income students have access to gadgets, inexpensive internet, and online resources.

Conclusion

Ensuring that every kid in India has access to high-quality education has been made possible largely by the Right to Education Act. Even though there have been some noticeable achievements, such as enrollment and gender parity, the process is far from over. Achieving the entire objective of the RTE Act will require tackling implementation issues, guaranteeing compliance, and planning for the future of education. Moreover, in order to establish an education system that does not leave any child behind, stakeholders must collaborate and acknowledge that education is not only a fundamental human right but also the cornerstone of a fair and just society.

 

Featured Image source: https://shorturl.at/1s8tz

References

[1] Gorav Sharma. (2021, May 15). What is Right to Education Act (RTE Act)? Times of India Blog. Retrieved August 20, 2024, from https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/igoravsharma/what-is-right-to-education-act-rte-act-32034/.

[2] Balram. (2020, August 17). Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 (Right to Education Act). Vikaspedia. Retrieved August 22, 2024, from https://vikaspedia.in/education/policies-and-schemes/right-to-education/right-of-children-to-free-and-compulsory-education-act-2009-right-to-education-act.

[3] Warrier, V. S. (2023, July 4). Right to Education in India: Challenges and Opportunities – The Lex-Warrier: Online Law Journal. The Lex-Warrier: Online Law Journal. https://lex-warrier.in/right-to-education-in-india-challenges-and-opportunities.html.

[4]Rai, D. (2021, August 27). All you need to know about the Right to Education in India. iPleaders. https://blog.ipleaders.in/right-to-education-3/#Main_features_of_the_Right_to_Education_Act.

[5] Banerjee, S. (2019). Ten years of RTE Act: Revisiting achievements and examining gaps. Observe Research Foundation, 304. https://www.orfonline.org/research/ten-years-of-rte-act-revisiting-achievements-and-examining-gaps.

[6] Child Rights and You. (2024, July 30). Right to Education Act (RTE) – Know importance & responsibilities. CRY – Give Children a Happy, Healthy and Creative Childhood | CRY – India’s Leading Non-profit. https://www.cry.org/blog/what-is-the-right-to-education-act/.

[7] Goodpal, V. a. P. B. (2024, February 23). RTE Act 2009 — Issues and challenges. Issues and Challenges in India. https://socialissuesindia.wordpress.com/2020/07/17/rte-act-2009-anomalies-and-challenges/.

[8] ‘Dalit’ is a term for untouchables and outcasts, who represented the lowest stratum of the castes in the Indian subcontinent.

Education Monitor: Around The Globe between December 1st and December 15th, 2024 Edition

Broken Chalk proudly presents a new edition of “Education Monitor: Around the Globe” between December 1st and December 15th, 2024. Broken Chalk aims with this letter to increase public awareness of  Educational problems, challenges, and violations in the scope of the world. This newsletter is unique. This is a weekly newsletter in which we attempt to monitor and convey educational news from around the world in a concise manner. This monitor will be published biweekly with the effort of our young and enthusiastic team.

You can contribute to our work if you like. If you witness any violations in the scope of education, you can write the comment part of this post. Broken Chalk will try to address the issue in its next monitor edition.

December-1st-till-December-15th-2024

To download this edition as a PDF, click here

Broken Chalk Platform, in March 2019, was founded by a group of educators abroad who experienced and have been experiencing severe human rights violations in Turkey and had to ask for asylum currently in several countries.

These education volunteers also suffered greatly and started their new lives in their new countries without human rights violations. They gained respect just because they were considered human beings in those countries. However, they left one part of their minds and hearts in their homeland. They assigned themselves a new duty, and the human rights violations they left behind had to be announced to the World. A group of education volunteers who came together for this purpose started their activities under the Broken Chalk platform’s umbrella. However, the Broken Chalk platform was not enough to serve their aims. Therefore, they completed their official establishment as a Human Rights Foundation in October 2020.

Broken Chalk is now much more than a platform, and we have reviewed and enlarged our vision and mission within this framework. Violations of rights would be the first in our agenda in the field of Education all over the World. At the point we reached today, Broken Chalk opened its door to all individuals from all across the globe, from all professions, and to all individuals who say or can say ‘I also want to stand against violations of human rights in Education for our future and whole humanity, where our generations grow up together.’

Education is essential because it can help us eliminate the evils from society, introduce, and increase the good. We want to draw the public’s and stakeholders’ attention to the fact that Education is in danger in several different parts of the World. The attacks are wide-reaching, from the bombing of schools to the murder of students and teachers. Raping and sexual violence, arbitrary arrests, and forced recruitment also occurred, instigated by armed groups. Attacks on Education harm the students and teachers but also affect the communities in the short and long term.

We invite all individuals who want to stop human rights violations in Education to become Volunteers at Broken Chalk.

Ethiopia’s Education Problem: 96% of students fail final school exam 

Written by Zoë Alford

Hundreds of thousands of students are left without the opportunity for higher education due to a massive educational crisis currently facing Ethiopia. Out of the 3,106 schools administering 12th grade in 2023, 43% reported that no students had passed the Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (EGSECE) (Hood, 2023). This final exam is a prerequisite for university entrance and saw 96% of students failing for the second year in a row (Hood, 2023). The overwhelming majority of Ethiopia’s youth are now left with limited education opportunities and few choices for their future. While exam results are not the only measure of a country’s education system, such significant failure rates can only be symptomatic of one that is fractured and struggling.

Structural Issues:

The education system in Ethiopia is struggling to keep up with the burgeoning numbers of primary and secondary school students. Since 1990, students in primary education increased from 3 million to 20 million in 2018/19 (Tiruneh et al., 2021). With more students finishing primary school than ever before, Ethiopian pupils are continuing on into high school with limited resources and infrastructure in place to support them. Secondary enrollment has doubled in the last 10 years, going from 23% in 2011/12 to 46% in 2021/22 (Ministry of Education, 2022) This remarkable achievement has given greater access to education for children from disadvantaged backgrounds and drastically increased the number of girls in school. However, the rapid expansion of the education system has left it struggling to ensure all students are given a sound education and the resources they require (Tiruneh et al., 2021).

Poor school infrastructure, inadequate distribution of resources and outdated materials have also fueled this crisis. Combined with a system stretched thin to meet the demands of ever-increasing pupils, hundreds of thousands of children have consequentially finished primary education without fundamental skills in literacy and numeracy (Hood, 2023). These abilities are not only essential for further education but also necessary to live a life of opportunity in a modern, globalised world.

The lack of robust education combined with a burgeoning student population has also left Ethiopia without appropriately trained teachers. In the country’s teacher trainee program, many candidates have not completed the final 2 years of secondary education. Trainees often also score low when tested for their science and mathematics abilities (Assefa et al. 2021; Gebremeskel et al. 2017). This leaves a major gap in the education system for educated and well-trained teachers, creating a cycle where limited education creates poorly educated teachers, creating further inadequate education for younger students in fundamental subjects. There is also a high student-to-teacher ratio, stretching what teachers that Ethiopia does have already, thinner (Assefa et al. 2021). Ethiopia has recognized that their educational system must consider the gap between their societal goals for education and the general student learning experience (Hood, 2023).

Covid-19:

It is also important to note that the Covid-19 pandemic widened the education gap. Lockdowns in 2020 prevented more than 26 million students from learning over a period of 8 months (Araya et al., 2022). With limited online learning materials and resources, students were required to catch up on 8 months’ worth of lessons lost in just 45 days. Primary school students in 2021 had lower foundational numeracy skills and made slower progress in numeracy as the year progressed, compared to students from 2018 (Araya et al., 2022). The pandemic lockdowns also heavily affected students from rural and lower-income families, with pupils from these backgrounds having the lowest numeracy levels in their cohort (Araya et al., 2022). The pandemic therefore exacerbated the systemic problems already prevalent in Ethiopia’s education system.

Internal Conflict:

The Tigray War in northern Ethiopia also likely added to the declining exam results. Lasting from November 2020 until November 2022, the conflict caused a humanitarian crisis, human rights abuses and destruction of infrastructure, including educational institutions. The conflict affected around 1.4 million children in the region, with many parents too concerned about their children’s safety to send them to school (Belay et al., 2023). This conflict severely limited access to education, for reasons such as trauma, loss of infrastructure and population movement (Belay et al., 2023). The armed conflict in Tigray has not only impacted on educational achievement in the region but also limited education opportunities. This has been cited as another reason for the extremely low pass rate in Ethiopia in recent years (Belay et al., 2023).

Looking forward:

An overall greater financial investment in education would offer a fast-tracked solution to many of Ethiopia’s’ education systemic problems. Funding for additional, more uniform and up to date learning resources as well as improving school infrastructure would greatly increase educational quality for all students. Higher salaries, a stronger teacher training program and leadership training would encourage and upskill both current and potential teachers in Ethiopia (Tena & Motuma, 2024). Leadership training and a better trainee program can also be achieved via greater investment in university education, which has the potential to play a critical role in overcoming widespread structural issues. Investing in universities encourages innovation and improvement in curriculum, teacher training programs and capacity building within the education system (Tena & Motuma, 2024).

Greater focus on students from disadvantaged backgrounds would also ensure that Ethiopia’s most vulnerable pupils would not miss out on an education. Targeted support for low-performing students, those from low socio-economic backgrounds and students from rural areas would prevent further widening learning inequalities (Araya et al., 2022). When possible, employing technological forms of teaching would keep pupils in school who otherwise would not be able to attend, whether caused by conflict, illness or events like Covid-19. When online learning is not possible, continuing to encourage the importance of education across local communities and providing learning resources would greatly encourage students from disadvantaged backgrounds to continue their education (Araya et al., 2022). Ensuring pupils can still access education, despite conflict, pandemics or remoteness is essential to ensure such high rates of failure do not continue in the future.

Overall, Ethiopia must continue to invest and improve in their education system. This will ensure the robust functioning of not only its economy, but the right to self-determination for all Ethiopians regardless of economic background. Education has the power to reduce inequality, poverty, and it is therefore necessary to ensure that future Ethiopian generations are not left behind.

Photo by Roman Mager on Unsplash

Resources:

Araya, M., Rose, P., Sabates, R., Tiruneh, D.T., Woldeanna, T. (2022). Learning Losses during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Ethiopia: Comparing student achievement in early primary grades before school closures, and after they reopened. Rise Insight Series. Retrieved from https://riseprogramme.org/publications/learning-losses-during-covid-19-pandemic-ethiopia-comparing-student-achievement-early.html

Assefa, S., Asfaw, A., Fufa, D., Zewdie, G., Wodajo, H., Kekeba, H. & Tola, T. (2021). Status of teacher education programs in Ethiopia: Policy, curricula and resources. The Ethiopian Journal of Education, 41(1), 247-296.

Belay, F., Berhane, D., Teshale, H., Mulubrhan, G., Hagos, T., Gebremariam, H., Brhane, T., Islam, Z. (2023). The effect of war on educational institutions of Eastern Tigray zone, Tigray state, Ethiopia. International Journal of Educational Development, 102:102864. Retrieved from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0738059323001402#:~:text=Children%20did%20not%20attend%20schools,relevant%20to%20the%20war%20experiences.

Gebremeskel, H.H., Ahmed, A.Y., Getahun, D.A., Debele, M.L., Tibebu, D., Wondem, D.T. (2017). Revisiting teacher educators’ training in Ethiopia: Implications for a new approach to curriculum development. Bahir Dar Journal of Education, 17(2), 89-105.

https://www.ajol.info/index.php/bdje/article/view/249011/235474

Hood, L. (2023, November 23). Ethiopia’s education system is in crisis – now’s the time to fix it. The Conversation. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/ethiopias-education-system-is-in-crisis-nows-the-time-to-fix-it-217817

Ministry of Education (2022). Education statistics annual abstract (ESAA). Federal Republic of Ethiopia. Retrieved from https://moe.gov.et/storage/Books/ESAA%202014%20EC%20(2021-22%20G.C)%20Final.pdf

Tena, B. & Motuma, F. (2024). Policy reforms and unresolved educational challenges in Ethiopia: Implications for the University of Education. Bahir Dar Journal of Education, 24(1), 147-167. https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/bdje.v24i1.10

Tiruneh, D., Hoddinott, J., Rolleston, C., Sabates, R., Woldehanna, T. (2021). Understanding achievement in numeracy among primary school children in Ethiopia: Evidence from Rise Ethiopia study . RISE Working Paper Series. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John-Hoddinott-2/publication/359826987_Understanding_Achievement_in_Numeracy_Among_Primary_School_Children_in_Ethiopia_Evidence_from_RISE_Ethiopia_Study/links/64676983c9802f2f72ea0135/Understanding-Achievement-in-Numeracy-Among-Primary-School-Children-in-Ethiopia-Evidence-from-RISE-Ethiopia-Study.pdf

EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES IN THE CARRIBEAN NETHERLANDS

BY Sterre Krijnen

Every student counts! In 2011, this slogan was the starting shot of the Caribbean and European Netherlands’ combined efforts to achieve educational equity and raise the quality of education on the islands of Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba. Although quality and equity increased, the Caribbean Netherlands still dealt with significant educational challenges in 2023. This article will explore three main challenges: the care for students with special needs, multilingualism, and the effects of poverty.

This article analyses these three challenges to understand the accessibility and quality of education in the Caribbean Netherlands. But first, we need to go into the governance structure of the islands and their relationship with the European Netherlands to fully understand the barriers to tackling the challenges and efforts to address them. Also, the policy programs addressing education and the Education Agendas will be given special attention to show continuing good practices and to explain the context in which the current challenges continue.

Context-Specific Efforts to Overcome Education Inequity

In 1948, Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba became a part of the Dutch Antilles, a separate country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. This changed in 2010: the islands became public bodies under the European Netherlands. Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba are now local governments. An executive council, an island council, and the Dutch national government govern each island. Since this change, the islands have been referred to as the Caribbean Netherlands or the BES-islands.[i]

The Dutch Ministry for Education, Culture and Science is responsible for education. The schools on the islands are part of the Dutch education system and are monitored by the Netherlands’ Inspectorate of Education.[ii] The Dutch Ministry of Education, island councils and other stakeholders cooperated over the past twelve years to develop three policy programs, the Education Agendas.

The Education Agendas address educational equity between the two parts of the Netherlands. The idea is that it should not matter whether a child grows up in the European Netherlands or the Caribbean Netherlands; educational opportunities should be the same.[iii] The agendas address the specific context of the islands, as there are apparent differences from the European Netherlands in terms of culture, history, identity, language, scale, and organization.[iv]

The first two agendas address all three islands within one agenda. During the draft of the first Education Agenda (2011-2016), the level of education of many schools on the BES islands did not fulfil European nor Caribbean Dutch standards.[v] By 2016, most schools reached basic quality standards. However, particular areas still required improvement, again addressed in the second Agenda (2017-2020). [vi] The evaluation of this Agenda in 2020 shows that the main challenges are care for students with special needs and multilingualism.[vii]

While the third Education Agenda has not yet been published, it shall address these challenges.[viii] Furthermore, this agenda will address the challenges on each island separately, showing us a further commitment to context-specific policymaking, which hopefully improves the effectiveness of the third Education Agenda.

Educational Challenge I: Care for Students with Special Needs

The first challenge to discuss is the care for students with special needs. The right to education for children with special needs is a human right. It is taken up in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. While the last Convention was ratified by the European Netherlands, it does not apply to the Caribbean Netherlands.

A statement by the Expertise Centre Education Care Saba in 2021 summarizes the importance of care for these students:  “Students have the right to feel included in a safe and reliable environment with a structured pedagogical climate that is tolerant and encouraging for the development of all”.[ix] Now, children with special needs still face situations in which education is not tailored to them, meaning they do not profit from education as their peers or eventually drop out. Some children do not have access to education at all. Children with a higher need for care face difficulties.[x]

An example of inadequate care is the case of the ten-year-old Arianny on Bonaire. In 2022, the non-speaking girl was in the news as she could not attend education on Bonaire. Arianny had no access. Members of the Dutch parliament asked the then minister of Education, Dennis Wiersma, questions about her situation and the general situation on Bonaire. The minister reacted that all children should have access to education and are required to attend school, despite specific situations. The situation of Arianny and the research in other reports show us that is not yet the reality.[xi]

Why do these problems continue even after the two Education Agendas?

Student care on the BES islands is not comparable to care in the European Netherlands. While both experience similar problems, the expert centre on Saba notes that the main difference derives from scale and school culture, for example, the lack of awareness about the differing needs of students. This also applies to the other islands: children with special needs continue to follow the same program as their peers even though they need additional care. Moreover, there are relatively more students with special needs in Saba than in the European Netherlands. Possible explanations are a lack of education planning, differentiation in the classroom and special education needs teachers.[xii] Also, non-school-related causes affect children’s learning capabilities, such as poverty and domestic violence.[xiii]

This continuing lack of care for students with special needs thus asks for extra efforts. Renewed attention to this problem and policies need to tackle the problem, ensuring (continuance of) access to education for children like Arianny. Individual needs must be considered to optimize the learning experience of already vulnerable students.

 

Educational Challenge II: Multilingualism

Because of the different languages being spoken on each island, the language of education has been a thorny issue. Encountered challenges have been linguistic imperialism, learning challenges, and difficulty accessing tertiary education in Dutch.

On Bonaire, most inhabitants speak Papiamento as their mother tongue. On Saba and St. Eustasius, a local variety of Caribbean English has the upper hand. Despite this, Dutch was the only officially recognized language until the beginning of the century thus, education was in Dutch.[xiv]Nowadays, Papiamento and English can both be used in education. This represents the reality of the islands and a respect for local languages, making it a laudable development and a move away from linguistic imperialism.

However, it also causes new educational challenges, especially for learning results and further education. On Saba and St. Eustatius, the instruction language is English. Dutch is being taught as a foreign language.[xv] St. Eustatius switched to English as an instruction language in secondary education in 2014. Dutch proved to negatively affect learning outcomes and attitudes towards the Dutch language.[xvi] Saba has used English as the instruction language for a more extended period. However, only teaching Dutch as a foreign language hinders access to tertiary education. A low proficiency in Dutch means that students from these islands cannot access (all) tertiary education institutions in the European Netherlands.[xvii] This is especially problematic because the Caribbean Netherlands does not have any universities or universities of applied sciences, meaning inhabitants must move to pursue tertiary education.[xviii]

On Bonaire, education starts in Papiamento  – the native language of most students  – for the first two years of primary school. After these years, the instruction language became Dutch. This causes risks, as the case of St. Eustatius before 2014 showed. Furthermore, it can hinder learning outcomes as children might struggle with Dutch.[xix]

Therefore, multilingualism leads to specific challenges for students regarding access to further education and learning outcomes. It has been difficult to find a balance between Dutch, Papiamento, and Caribbean English that will tackle these challenges. A comprehensive language policy should be developed per island, where native languages and Dutch get a well-balanced place within the education system.

Educational Challenge III: Poverty

This third educational challenge goes beyond the education agendas as it intertwines with the overall situation on the BES islands: life on the islands has become increasingly expensive, and salaries and government support are insufficient to afford this.

This is why children on the BES islands noted poverty as one of the biggest challenges in their lives in 2021. And high poverty levels have continued since then: 11,000 people live below the poverty line in 2023. This is an extremely high number, considering that the islands’ total population is 30,000.[xx] In comparison to the European Netherlands: 800,000 live in poverty on a population of almost 18 million.[xxi]

What do such numbers mean for Caribbean students?

The rapport between the Dutch Ombudsman and the Children’s Ombudsman gives us the distressing example of Shanice, an 11-year-old Bonairean girl. Her mother is a single caretaker, working multiple jobs to stay afloat. She is more often at work than at home. Shanice cares for her younger brothers and sisters, looks after the groceries, and wash dishes instead of having the opportunity to focus on her studies. She goes to school: she likes it there. However, she often feels stressed because of her many responsibilities. Then, she cannot focus or learn. At the same time, Shanice pressures herself to learn: she wants to have a different life than her mom.[xxii]

This example shows how poverty gives children many responsibilities and negatively affects their learning. This example does not comprise all adverse effects. When not having enough money, healthy food is not always a priority, just like schoolbooks or having a good place to study. Extra school costs might not be paid. Parents and kids both experience high-stress levels, which might cause parents to be (emotionally) unavailable and children to have problems focusing. All negatively affect the school outcomes of children.[xxiii]

To tackle this problem of poverty and its effects, there should be governmental support to lift children and their parents from poverty. However, government policies are one of the causes of poverty: the model of living costs for the BES island presents living costs as lower than they are. Policies are developed based on this model. Moreover, this is a recurring argument for not higher social welfare: ensuring social welfare will demotivate people, and they will not work anymore.[xxiv] Hence, policies have contributed to the problem of poverty.

In addition, inhabitants of the BES islands do not always have access to the same resources European Dutch individuals have. These resources are, however, of great importance: European Dutch depend on them, but Caribbean Dutch cannot even access them.[xxv] This is possible because of the special status of the islands. The UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination noted in 2021 that such differences between the European Netherlands and Caribbean Netherlands are deplorable, that discrimination should be fought, and that equality should be pursued.

The Dutch government has been taking steps. A law ensuring the equal treatment of all citizens in the Netherlands will come into effect for the Caribbean Netherlands.[xxvi] The exact date is, however, unclear. Furthermore, the model of living costs will be adjusted in July 2024. From that date onwards, inhabitants of the Caribbean Netherlands will be able to breach the gap between social security and living costs that exists now. In addition, the Dutch government does undertake other efforts to address poverty, but the Netherlands Institute for Human Rights judges them to be insufficient. [xxvii]

The Dutch government seems to increasingly take responsibility for the high poverty levels in the Caribbean Netherlands. A necessary development: despite statements such as ‘Every student counts!’, the Dutch government has discriminated against Caribbean Dutch citizens. The unfavourable treatment they experience puts them behind their fellow citizens in Europe.

Photo by Unseen Studio on Unsplash

Conclusion

Education quality has increased significantly on the Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba islands. Great efforts have been made to tailor policies to the local contexts of the islands, which is essential for education equity between the European and Caribbean Netherlands. This is praiseworthy and will hopefully continue with the third Education Agenda.

However, great educational challenges persist on the islands. Benefits from and access to education are under pressure.  While multilingualism affects all students, poverty and the lack of special care affect some students disproportionately. Furthermore, the problem of poverty and lack of special care show clear signs of discrimination, which should be condemned and stopped. The case of the islands of Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba thus indicates the need for policies tackling discrimination and a comprehensive plan to improve education further.

References

[i] Rijksoverheid. (N.d). Caribisch deel van het Koninkrijk. Rijksoverheid. https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/caribische-deel-van-het-koninkrijk/rechtspositie-politieke-ambtsdragers-bonaire-sint-eustatius-saba

[ii] Rijksoverheid. (N.d.). Caribisch deel van het Koninkrijk. Rijksoverheid.

[iii] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/onderwijs-cultuur-wetenschap

[iv] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijsagenda voor Caribisch Nederland: samen werken aan kwaliteit. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. 1. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/binaries/rijksdienstcn-nederlands/documenten/brochures/onderwijs-cultuur/onderwijsagendas/eerste-onderwijsagenda-caribisch-nederland/index/Eerste_Onderwijsagenda_NL.pdf

[v] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijsagenda voor Caribisch Nederland: samen werken aan kwaliteit. 1.

[vi] Inspectie van het Onderwijs. (2017). De Ontwikkeling van het Onderwijs in Caribisch Nederland 2014-2016. Onderwijsinspectie. 39-41. https://www.onderwijsinspectie.nl/documenten/rapporten/2017/03/21/rapport-onderwijsontwikkelingen-caribisch-nederland-20142016

[vii] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 20. https://www.eerstekamer.nl/overig/20210708/evaluatie_tweede_onderwijsagenda/document3/f=/vlkch545eltd_opgemaakt.

[viii] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 22.

[ix]. Langerak, Lisa. (2021). Inclusive Special Education on Saba. Expertise Center Education Care. 2. https://www.learningsaba.com/2021_Care_Coordinator/210614%20Project%20plan%20Inclusive%20Special%20Education%20Saba.pdf

[x] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 20.

[xi] Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. (2022). Antwoord op schriftelijke vragen van de leden Van den Berg en Peters (beiden CDA) over het bericht ‘Moeder vraagt om hulp: 10-jarige Arianny kan op Bonaire niet naar school. Open Overheid. 2-3. https://open.overheid.nl/documenten/ronl-b6d4ce01be3eac9fe87130ee6b9b0f08d72e664e/pdf

[xii] Langerak, Lisa. (2021). Inclusive Special Education on Saba. Expertise Center Education Care. 5.

[xiii] Kinderombudsman. (2021). Als je het ons vraagt: kinderen op de BES-eilanden. Kinderombudsman. 10-11. https://www.kinderombudsman.nl/publicaties/rapport-als-je-het-ons-vraagt-onderzoek-kinderen-op-de-bes

[xiv] Mijts, Eric, Ellen-Petra Kester and Nicholas Faraclas. (2014). Multilingualism and education in the Caribbean Netherlands. A community-based approach to a sustainable language education policy. The case study of St. Eustatius. NT2. 2. https://www.nt2.nl/documenten/meertaligheid_en_onderwijs/kambel_meertaligheid_binnenwerk_eng_h5.pdf

[xv] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Taal in het Onderwijs. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/onderwijs-cultuur-wetenschap/ouders-leerlingen/taal-in-het-onderwijs

[xvi] Polak, Anneke. (2014). Engels als instructietaal ‘ingrijpend’. Caribisch Netwerk. https://caribischnetwerk.ntr.nl/2014/06/19/engels-als-instructietaal-statia-ingrijpend/

[xvii] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 20.

[xviii] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Higher Education and Science. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. https://english.rijksdienstcn.com/education-culture-science/higher-education-and-science

[xix] Kloosterboer, Karin. (2013). Kind op Bonaire, St. Eustatius en Saba. UNICEF. 15. https://content.presspage.com/uploads/688/samenvattingkindopbeslowres.pdf

[xx] NOS. (2023). Derde van Caribisch Nederland onder armoedegrens, pleidooi voor hoger minimumloon. NOS

https://nos.nl/artikel/2493122-derde-van-caribisch-nederland-onder-armoedegrens-pleidooi-voor-hoger-minimumloon

[xxi] Den Hartog, Tobias and Laurens Kok. (2023). Op weg naar 1 miljoen armen: bij dit inkomen leef je volgens de overheid in armoede. Het Parool.

https://www.parool.nl/nederland/op-weg-naar-1-miljoen-armen-bij-dit-inkomen-leef-je-volgens-de-overheid-in-armoede~b9c9b7ed/

[xxii] Kinderombudsman, and Nationale Ombudsman. (2023). Caribische kinderen van de rekening. Kinderombudsman. 4. https://www.nationaleombudsman.nl/publicaties/rapporten/2022058#:~:text=Dit%20rapport%20beschrijft%20de%20knelpunten,zelf%20als%20voor%20hun%20kinderen.

[xxiii] Nederlands Jeugdinstituut. (N.d). De invloed van armoede op schoolprestaties. Nederlands Jeugdinstituut. https://www.nji.nl/armoede/invloed-op-schoolprestaties

[xxiv] Haringsma, Phaedra. (2022). Zo wordt ongelijkheid tussen Europees en Caribisch Nederland al jaren in stand gehouden. De Correspondent. https://decorrespondent.nl/13713/zo-wordt-ongelijkheid-tussen-europees-en-caribisch-nederland-al-jaren-in-stand-gehouden/2f84b44f-db88-0d7c-029d-9c1d00ae02b3

 

[xxvi] Netherlands Institute for Human Rights. (2023). Caribisch Nederland krijgt wetgeving gelijke behandeling. College voor de Rechten van de Mens. https://www.mensenrechten.nl/actueel/nieuws/2023/01/25/caribisch-nederland-krijgt-wetgeving-gelijke-behandeling#:~:text=Iedereen%20die%20zich%20in%20Nederland,2010%20bijzondere%20gemeentes%20van%20Nederland

[xxvii] Netherlands Institute for Human Rights. (2023). Report to UN Committee on economic, social and cultural human rights in the Netherlands. College voor de Rechten van de Mens. 4-6. https://publicaties.mensenrechten.nl/file/5803a853-0bbe-b495-7932-3bb751e0aed4.pdf

Ensuring Equal Access to Education: Addressing Socioeconomic Disparities in Albanian Schools 

Written by Iris Karoli 

In Albania, access to education remains unequal due to a complex interplay of social and economic factors. Despite strides since the end of communist rule, disparities persist, leaving many marginalized. Socioeconomic status, geography, ethnicity, and gender intersect to create barriers to quality education. Economic disparities hinder low-income families from affording schooling costs, while rural areas face resource and infrastructure challenges. Minority groups, like the Roma and Balkan Egyptians, encounter discrimination, and traditional gender roles limit girls’ access to education in some regions. Albania’s political nature, marked by historical transitions and ongoing reforms, also influences its education system. The country’s path from communist isolation to a multi-party democracy has seen improvements, but political instability and corruption have at times disrupted the educational progress. 

Despite primary education boasting a commendable enrolment rate of 97% and a completion rate of 107%, it doesn’t signify an absence of challenges in education accessibility. These figures underscore Albanian society’s prioritization of schooling and the significance placed on education. However, upon examining secondary education, the enrolment rate plummets to 75%, a figure significantly lower than regional averages and falling below standards set by the The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development  (OECD) and the European Union (EU).  

Economic disparities play a significant role in worsening unequal access to education in Albania. Studies indicate that nearly 60% of the population resides in rural areas, where economic challenges are pronounced and many struggle to meet their basic needs.1 Consequently, children in these communities face unwarranted disadvantages in accessing education. The issue unfolds along two primary tracks: first, the financial constraints that hinder families from affording school-related expenses such as tuition fees, textbooks, and transportation. Despite education being free in Albania, many families still encounter financial challenges. Second, the lack of infrastructural investments in rural areas further compounds the problem, making it even more difficult for children to access educational opportunities. This dual challenge underscores the urgent need for targeted interventions aimed at alleviating economic barriers and improving infrastructure in rural communities to ensure equitable access to education for all children in Albania. 

There is a glaring absence of state aid for families facing financial difficulties in Albania. This lack of support is further exacerbated by inadequate infrastructure and the scarcity of schools, which intensifies the challenges faced by students. In many cases, children must undertake arduous journeys of 2-5 kilometres daily to reach school, particularly in remote areas where schools are often located in neighbouring villages. These journeys pose significant risks, especially during harsh winter conditions, when extreme weather and hazardous terrain, including river crossings and forest paths, increase the danger for young students. Furthermore, children are frequently placed in the same classroom regardless of their varying ages or disparities in knowledge levels. This occurs due to insufficient student numbers to form individual classes, resulting in a compromised quality of education. 

Social disparities significantly contribute to the widening of the inequality gap in Albania. While the ethnic makeup of the Albanian population comprises mainly Albanians (98.1%) and other minorities such as Greeks (0.9%) and various recognized groups including Vlach, Roma, Macedonians, Montenegrins, and Egyptians (1%), the latter face distinct challenges in accessing education despite constitutional recognition of their rights.2 Among these minorities, Roma and Egyptians are particularly marginalized, facing discrimination that permeates their educational opportunities. Economic factors exacerbate this disparity, with studies revealing that 64% of their income is allocated to basic necessities like food.3 Living in impoverished conditions, often sustained by collecting and selling recyclable materials, these minorities struggle to afford schooling for their children. Consequently, many children are not enrolled in school, as they are expected to contribute to their families’ income by assisting in street activities, further perpetuating the cycle of poverty and educational exclusion. 

The language barrier presents another significant hurdle contributing to educational disparities in Albania. While the official language is Albanian, and the country legally acknowledges and accepts the language and culture of the Roma community, educational instruction is exclusively provided in Albanian. This linguistic limitation widens the gap, particularly for Roma children who encounter difficulties learning in a language different from their own. As a result, their academic performance  often suffers. Despite this challenge, the state has yet to implement any programs or initiatives aimed at facilitating the education of these students and bridging the gap caused by language differences.  

Another issue promoting social disparities in education is the requirement for children to be registered at schools within the neighbourhood or zone where they reside. This policy poses significant challenges, particularly in densely populated urban areas like the capital city, Tirana. In Tirana, certain neighbourhoods consist primarily of social housing, trapping children from less privileged families in a cycle of disadvantage. The correlation between poverty, neighbourhood residency, and educational quality creates a self-perpetuating loop where children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds are confined to areas with limited resources and subsequently receive lower-quality education. This systemic barrier further causes social inequalities, hindering the prospects for upward mobility and perpetuating cycles of poverty in Albania’s urban centres. 

Gender inequality represents another significant factor contributing to disparities in education. While studies and data indicate minimal discrepancies between boys’ and girls’ access to education at lower levels, a substantial gender gap emerged in higher education enrolment rates since 2009. Recent statistics reveal a stark contrast, with male enrolment in higher education standing at 43%, while female enrolment lags far behind at only 18%, marking a 25% disparity between genders.4 This gap can be attributed to entrenched traditional norms in Albanian culture, which is predominantly patriarchal. Although young girls are often encouraged to complete secondary education, societal expectations dictate that their educational pursuits cease thereafter, prioritizing marriage and family formation. Consequently, many women are hindered from reaching their full potential due to these societal constraints, perpetuating the cycle of gender inequality in Albanian society. 

Albania faces the challenge of meeting Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) targets in education, with particular emphasis on improving specific areas. One major area requiring attention is increasing the percentage of young people achieving minimum proficiency in reading after lower secondary education. This involves enhancing reading programs, teacher training, and access to quality reading materials. Additionally, improving the completion rate in primary education is essential, focusing on reducing dropout rates and providing support to students at risk of discontinuing their education. Moreover, increasing participation rates in organized learning activities, such as extracurricular programs and vocational training, is crucial for fostering holistic development. Lastly, efforts to enhance proficiency in mathematics after the end of lower secondary education are needed, including curriculum improvements, teacher training, and educational resources. By addressing these specific challenges, Albania can make significant progress towards meeting its education-related SDG targets and ensuring a more inclusive and quality education system. 

In conclusion, Albania faces a complex web of challenges that contribute to inequalities in education access. Addressing these issues demands comprehensive strategies to dismantle structural barriers, challenge societal norms, and prioritize equitable education access for all. Additionally, investing in teacher training and curriculum development is essential for enhancing the quality of education and ensuring that all Albanian students have the opportunity to reach their full potential. By implementing inclusive policies, investing in infrastructure, and promoting cultural change, Albania can progress towards providing quality education to every child, regardless of background. Only through concerted efforts can Albania foster a more equitable and prosperous future for all its citizens.  

 

Photo by Kenny Eliason on Unsplash

References: 

Russian Education System: Lessons in Indoctrination

Written by Uilson Jones

The power of education is often repeated time and time again, turning it into a rather dry bit of cliché. However, the phraseology of just how crucial the educational system is, must not be looked at with boredom nor disdain. Rivera Sun, author and advocate for social justice, states that: “Whoever educates children controls the future”, and that “if we want a democratic future, we must plant the seeds in our little dandelions nationwide and ensure that our education is governed of, by, and for the people” (Sun, 2013). This often-repeated notion appears prescient not only in the centuries before our time, but also the point of time we found ourselves in currently – perhaps even more so. The current article aims to produce an overview and analysis of the Russian educational system, particularly after Russia’s full-scale incursion into Ukraine in 2022. This would therefore include the changes made to the educational system and its devastating implications for Russia’s youth, and by extension its future. The following is an attempt to break down the fundamental restructuring of schooling and as such the content of lessons, mandatory activities and extracurriculars involving school-age children.

Patriotic Education

Beginning on the 5th of September 2022, the Russian government imposed a series of major alterations for the ways in which Russian children are taught. The Russian government came out with a website known as ‘Conversations about the Important’ (Разговоры о Важном, n.d.). This website is being used as a portal for schoolteachers that outlines a strict curriculum to be followed when instructing a weekly class for pupils of all ages, ranging from that of first grade to the very end of secondary school. Far from a candid recommendation provided by the Russian government, this website acts as a comprehensive tool for teachers, with prepared presentations, instructions on what to say to children in the class, behaviour and conduct, amongst others. Schoolteachers are expected to abide by this curriculum and have no real agency to act otherwise. Every Monday, the first class each grade has is this carefully constructed propaganda lesson – Conversations about the Important. Rather than being purely optional, its is mandatory and covers a wide variety of topics from Russian history and current events which paint the picture in the way that Putin’s dictatorship craves. As an example, let us take an excerpt from a file dedicated to the class on the 7th of November 2022 in the name of the Day of National Unity. Filtering for grades 5-7, one can stumble upon this piece of text:

The excerpt is translated as follows:

Conversation

Teacher: Children! Quite recently we talked with you about the important role of a father in the family and raising children, about traditional Russian values, which are crucial to safeguard and pass onto the next generations. We came to the conclusion, that family – is the most important thing in the life of every person, it is support and support [опора и поддержка are synonyms for support in the Russian language], it is love and understanding. The citizens of a government are also one big UNITED family. And we – citizens of Russia – are a big family, in which we need to support and take care of one another. We have a governmental holiday, symbolizing our community cohesion – The Day of National Unity. It is as important now as ever, given that in the last years according to will of the people of the Russian Federation, five new territories entered: Crimea, Donetsk and Luhansk People’s Republics, Kherson and Zaporizhzhia Oblasts.

For this reason, the theme of our lesson is: “We – are one country!” [Author’s emphasis]

[Translated by Author]

In case this is seen as a one-off let us observe a few stanzas of a poem to be taught to Russian schoolchildren for grades three and above. This lesson was titled: Our Country – Russia.

Translation:

Teacher: We know that the wisdom of the people is reflected in its proverbs and sayings. Let us remember the proverbs about the motherland and the love towards it.

A person without the motherland, is but a nightingale without a song.

Don’t spare your strength nor life, for the motherland.

There are many different countries, but there is one motherland.

There is nothing in the world that is better, than our motherland.

You cannot change your motherland for anything.

Everyone loves their motherland.

The happiness of the motherland is worth more than life.

We will stand like a mountain for our native land.

For the motherland, it is not scary to die.

Love the motherland – Serve the motherland. [Author’s emphasis]

[Translated by Author]

 

These two excerpts reveal the severe propagandization evident in the Russian educational system. Not only are Russian children being force-fed Kremlin’s dogma about its current war in Ukraine, but there also appears to be a sharp increase of ultranationalist messaging and militarism within schools, where arms are observed to be side by side with textbooks (Institute of Mass Information, 2023). Having taken these excerpts as a starting point, one must look at other exercises that Russian students have no choice but to take part in. After which, it is necessary to analyse the causes and effects of such a policy on Russia, as well as its future generation.

Propagandizing School Life

In addition to these official changes made to the educational curriculum, there have been other unofficial ongoing developments to Russian schools. The sharp rise of Putin’s cult of personality has been observed to radically alter the lives of students, and school staff. To name but one example of how this changed the landscape, we can look at what a school day was like on the day of Putin’s birthday. Across various regions of Russia, students (oftentimes of very young age) were forced to send their leader birthday wishes (The Moscow Times, 2024). In a school in the Rostov region, children were told to kneel in the form of Putin’s name, stating that “we’re proud that the best president in the world rules over our country” (The Moscow Times, 2024).

Amnesty International (2023) has designated Russia’s new history textbooks as propaganda aimed at indoctrinating the next generations, not only in Russia, but also the temporarily occupied territories in Ukraine. These textbooks preach a dangerous form of alternate history. The editors and authors have peddled Kremlinite propaganda, and thus align the story to fit the dominant narrative in Russia. A reality in which Russia invaded a sovereign neighbour, butchering and terrorizing its population and occupying its territories suddenly evaporates. Replacing it is a faux reality, regurgitating that Russia is simply defending itself and going so far as to claim that the decision to live under occupied territories was the ‘will of the people’. The erasure of history is proceeding with a reinvigorated pace. Understanding these developments is of crucial importance, yet even more so is fighting back against the tide of reactionary ideas.

 

Reference List

Amnesty International. (2023). Ukraine/Russia: New history textbook is a blatant attempt to unlawfylly indoctrinate schoolchildren in Russia and Russian-occupied Ukrainian territories. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/09/ukraine-russia-new-history-textbook-is-a-blatant-attempt-to-unlawfully-indoctrinate-school-children-in-russia-and-russian-occupied-ukrainian-territories/.

Institute of Mass Information. (2023). Guns and textbooks side by side: The Russian policy of militarizing children as violation of human rights. https://imi.org.ua/en/monitorings/guns-and-textbooks-side-by-side-the-russian-policy-of-militarizing-children-as-violation-of-i51954.

Pазговоры о Bажном [Conversations about the Important]. (n.d.). https://razgovor.edsoo.ru/.

Sun, R. (2013). The Dandelion Insurrection: Love and Revolution. Rising Sun Press Works.

The Moscow Times. (2024). Russian schoolchildren forced to send Putin birthday wishes on-camera. https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/10/07/russian-schoolchildren-forced-to-send-putin-birthday-wishes-on-camera-a86597.

Cover Image from Meduza