ज़ाम्बिया अफ्रीका के दक्षिण मध्य भाग में स्थित एक लैंडलॉक देश है। विश्व बैंक के अनुसार इसकी आबादी लगभग 18 मिलियन है। ज़ाम्बिया में अफ्रीका में सबसे तेजी से बढ़ती अर्थव्यवस्थाओं में से एक है, हालांकि, इसके शैक्षिक क्षेत्र को कई चुनौतियों का सामना करना पड़ता है क्योंकि 60% आबादी गरीबी से नीचे रहती है और इनमें से 40% अत्यधिक गरीबी में रहती है।
वैश्विक महामारी, कोरोना वायरस के बावजूद, जाम्बिया अपने शैक्षिक क्षेत्र में निम्नलिखित समस्याओं का सामना कर रहा है; योग्य शिक्षकों, शैक्षिक सामग्री, वित्तपोषण और पर्याप्त स्कूल बुनियादी ढांचे की कमी की कमी। केली (1992) के अनुसार कई अफ्रीकी देशों में गरीबी ने शिक्षा प्रणाली को प्रभावित किया है, इसलिए अधिकांश छात्र और शिक्षक उन बुनियादी जरूरतों को खोजने में सक्षम नहीं हैं जिनके वे हकदार हैं। जाम्बिया के बारे में यह सच है, क्योंकि भले ही देश के कल्याण में मदद करने के लिए सरकार और संगठनों के अस्तित्व के साथ, जाम्बिया को अभी भी अपने शैक्षिक क्षेत्रों में वर्तमान स्थिति को बदलने के लिए और अधिक हस्तक्षेप की आवश्यकता है।
योग्य शिक्षकों की कमी
जाम्बिया के ग्रामीण और शहरी दोनों क्षेत्रों में मूलभूत विद्यालयों में बड़ी संख्या में शिक्षक पूरी तरह से प्रशिक्षित या योग्य नहीं हैं। यह शिक्षा ढांचे के प्रावधान की गुणवत्ता को प्रभावित करता है। मुद्दा यह है कि शिक्षक कुछ विषयों को पढ़ाने और कवर करने में सक्षम नहीं हैं जिन्हें वे पूरी तरह से नहीं समझते हैं। एक मामला जिसे हॉपपॉक (1966) ने अकादमिक विषाक्तता कहा जहां विद्यार्थियों को गलत क्षमताओं और सिद्धांतों को पढ़ाया जाता है। इस संबंध में, शिक्षकों को प्रशिक्षित करने और अपनी संबंधित नौकरी को व्यवसाय के रूप में मानने की आवश्यकता है, न कि कुछ और।
शैक्षिक सामग्री
जाम्बिया के अधिकांश स्कूलों में बच्चों को शिक्षा के प्रावधान के लिए आवश्यक किताबें, शासक, नक्शे, चार्ट और कई अन्य संसाधनों जैसी पर्याप्त शैक्षिक सामग्री नहीं है। कारमोडी (2004) के अनुसार संसाधनों के बिना शिक्षा भविष्य के बिना शिक्षा के समान है। इस मामले में, कारमोडी आरोप लगा रहा है कि गुणवत्तापूर्ण और स्थायी शिक्षा बिना किसी औपचारिक दस्तावेज या संसाधनों के जारी नहीं रखी जा सकती है या दी नहीं जा सकती है। जाम्बिया के कई स्कूलों में बुनियादी स्तर पर शैक्षिक सामग्री की आवश्यकता है। ग्रामीण और शहरी दोनों क्षेत्रों में ज़ाम्बिया की शिक्षा प्रणाली के स्तर में सुधार के लिए पुस्तकों और अन्य शैक्षिक सामग्रियों की खरीद में सुधार करने की आवश्यकता है।
वित्तपोषण
जिन गतिविधियों में हम मूल रूप से पाए जाते हैं, उनमें से अधिकांश के लिए पैसा सीमित करने वाला कारक है। जब शिक्षा क्षेत्र की बात आती है, तो शिक्षकों को वेतन और मुआवजे की आवश्यकता होती है। शोध के अनुसार, पैसे का अनुरोध करने और वेतन में देरी की शिकायत करने की कोशिश में शिक्षण पेशे के शिक्षकों द्वारा कई हड़तालें की गई थीं। ये हड़तालें ज़ाम्बिया में शिक्षा प्रणाली के प्रावधान को सीधे प्रभावित करती हैं। इसलिए, वित्त सबसे बड़े कारकों में से एक है जिस पर ध्यान दिया जाना चाहिए।
स्कूलों में पर्याप्त बुनियादी सुविधाओं का अभाव
जाम्बिया में अधिकांश लोगों के लिए एक बड़ी समस्या पर्याप्त स्कूल बुनियादी ढांचे की कमी है। जाम्बिया में कई बच्चे स्कूल जाने में सक्षम नहीं हैं क्योंकि वे अपने स्कूल आने-जाने की दूरी से हतोत्साहित हैं। इस समस्या के कारण कुछ माता-पिता अपने कम उम्र के बच्चों को स्कूल भेजने से डरते हैं, विशेष रूप से छात्राओं को। सरकार और विभिन्न संगठनों ने देश में स्कूलों के निर्माण में भाग लिया है, हालांकि अभी भी अधिक हस्तक्षेप की आवश्यकता है।
निष्कर्ष
यह महत्वपूर्ण है कि सभी हितधारक संसाधन उपलब्ध कराने के लिए ज़ाम्बिया सरकार के साथ काम करें। शिक्षकों को बेहतर शिक्षक प्रशिक्षण पाठ्यक्रमों के माध्यम से छात्र केंद्रित शिक्षण दृष्टिकोण प्रदान किया जाना चाहिए। अंत में, सरकारों, दाताओं, संगठनों और सभी हितधारकों को शैक्षिक क्षेत्रों में सुधार के लिए सहयोगात्मक रूप से काम करने की आवश्यकता है।
केली, M.J. (1999). जाम्बिया में शिक्षा की उत्पत्ति और विकास, लुसाकाः इमेज पब्लिशर्स लिमिटेड। https://pixabay.com/illustrations/zambia-flag-sembol-national-nation-4623043 / – कवर फोटो स्रोत
कारमोडी, बी। (2004). जाम्बिया में शिक्षा का विकास। लुसाकाः बुक वर्ल्ड।
होपपॉक, आर. 1966. असली समस्या क्या है? अमेरिकाः शिक्षाविद प्रेस
بنگلہ دیش میں تعلیمی چیلنجز: چائلڈ لیبر کے نتائج اور مستقبل کے رجحانات
تحریر: اینا کورڈیش
ترجمہ: ماہ نور علی
ورلڈ ٹریڈ آرگنائزیشن (ڈبلیو ٹی او) کی رپورٹ کے مطابق بنگلہ دیش دنیا میں ریڈی میڈ گارمنٹس کا دوسرا بڑا برآمد کنندہ ہے، جس کا 2020 میں عالمی گارمنٹس برآمدات میں تقریباً 6.4 فیصد حصہ تھا۔ تاہم، یہ اقتصادی کامیابی سنگین قیمت پر حاصل کی گئی ہے کیونکہ 5 سے 17 سال کی عمر کے بچے اکثر بنگلہ دیشی گارمنٹس انڈسٹری میں غیر قانونی طور پر ملازمت کرتے ہیں۔ یہ غیر اخلاقی عمل نہ صرف انہیں تعلیم سے محروم کرتا ہے بلکہ ان کے مستقبل کے مواقع کو بھی محدود کر دیتا ہے۔ بنیادی تعلیم تک رسائی کے بغیر، یہ بچے فیکٹریوں میں کم اجرت پر کام کرنے پر مجبور ہیں اور انہیں وہ مواقع نہیں ملتے جو مستقبل میں بہتر اجرت والی ملازمتوں کا باعث بن سکیں۔ اس کے نتیجے میں، وہ غربت اور کم اجرت کے کاموں کے ایک ظالمانہ دائرے میں پھنس جاتے ہیں، جس سے چائلڈ لیبر کا سلسلہ جاری رہتا ہے۔ معیاری تعلیم کی عدم موجودگی ان بچوں کو ان کی صلاحیتوں سے محروم کرتی ہے اور غیر قانونی اور جسمانی طور پر مشقت والے کاموں سے نکلنے کے ان کے مواقع کو کم کر دیتی ہے۔
بطور ذمہ دار صارفین، یہ ضروری ہے کہ ہم ان کپڑوں کی پوری سپلائی چین پر غور کریں جو ہم خریدتے ہیں، اور اس بات پر غور کریں کہ آیا ہمارے خریداری کے فیصلوں کے ممکنہ نتائج کیا ہو سکتے ہیں۔ ہمیں یہ جاننے کی ضرورت ہے کہ آیا ٹی شرٹ اخلاقی طور پر تیار کی گئی ہے اور اس کی تیاری کے کسی مرحلے میں بچوں کی مزدوری کا استعمال تو نہیں ہوا۔ ان سوالات پر غور کرنا بنگلہ دیش کے سینکڑوں بچوں کو معیاری تعلیم تک رسائی فراہم کرنے اور غربت کے چنگل سے نکلنے کا موقع فراہم کرنے میں مددگار ثابت ہو سکتا ہے۔
اس مضمون کا مقصد بنگلہ دیش میں تعلیمی حصول کے مسئلے پر شعور بیدار کرنا ہے، جس کو چائلڈ لیبر کی موجودگی اور چائلڈ لیبر کے خاتمے کے لئے حکومتی پالیسیوں کی کمی نے مزید بڑھا دیا ہے۔
بنگلہ دیش میں غربت کی مختصر تاریخ
انیس سو اکہتر 1971 میں آزادی حاصل کرنے کے بعد، بنگلہ دیش کو ایک بڑا چیلنج درپیش تھا کیونکہ اس کی 80% آبادی غربت کی لکیر سے نیچے زندگی گزار رہی تھی۔ تاہم، سالوں کے دوران حکومت نے غربت کے خاتمے کو اپنی ترقیاتی حکمت عملی میں ایک اہم ترجیح بنایا۔ اس کا نتیجہ یہ نکلا کہ غربت کی شرح 80% سے کم ہو کر 24.3% تک پہنچ گئی، جس کا مطلب یہ ہے کہ ابھی بھی بنگلہ دیش کی تقریباً 35 ملین لوگ غربت کی لکیر سے نیچے زندگی گزار رہے ہیں (یونیسکو، 2009)۔
حکومت کی غربت کے خاتمے کی کوششوں کو مستحکم اقتصادی ترقی کی حمایت حاصل ہوئی، جو جزوی طور پر صحت مند میکرو اکنامک پالیسیوں اور تیار شدہ ملبوسات کی برآمدات میں اضافے سے آئی۔ نتیجتاً، مجموعی طور پر غربت کی شرح 2016 میں 13.47% سے کم ہو کر 2022 میں 10.44% ہو گئی (ڈھاکہ ٹریبون، 2022)۔
ان کامیابیوں کے باوجود، حالیہ رجحانات ظاہر کرتے ہیں کہ بنگلہ دیش میں غربت میں کمی کی شرح سست ہو رہی ہے۔ مزید برآں، غربت کے خاتمے کے اقدامات کا اثر دیہی اور شہری علاقوں میں یکساں نہیں رہا، کیونکہ ملک تیزی سے شہری بن رہا ہے۔ یہ ظاہر کرتا ہے کہ حالانکہ غربت میں کمی کی کوششوں میں پیش رفت ہوئی ہے، مختلف علاقوں میں مساوی غربت میں کمی کو یقینی بنانے کے لئے اب بھی چیلنجز موجود ہیں۔
اگرچہ بنگلہ دیش نے تیز اقتصادی ترقی کا تجربہ کیا ہے اور اسے دنیا کے تیز ترین ترقی کرنے والے ممالک میں شمار کیا جاتا ہے، مگر آمدنی کی عدم مساوات ایک اہم اور فوری مسئلہ ہے۔ درحقیقت، بنگلہ دیش میں آمدنی کی عدم مساوات بے مثال سطحوں تک پہنچ چکی ہے جو 1972 کے بعد کبھی نہیں دیکھی گئیں۔ تیار شدہ ملبوسات کی برآمدات کی صنعت کی ترقی کے باوجود، اس اقتصادی شعبے کے فوائد یکساں طور پر تقسیم نہیں ہوئے ہیں، جس کے نتیجے میں انسانی ترقی کے انڈیکس میں بنگلہ دیش 189 ممالک میں 133 نمبر پر آ گیا ہے۔
آمدنی کی عدم مساوات کا ایک واضح اشارہ نچلے 40% آبادی اور امیر ترین 10% کے درمیان آمدنی کے حصص میں تضاد ہے۔ نچلے 40% کی آمدنی کا حصہ صرف 21% ہے، جبکہ امیر ترین 10% 27% کا حصہ حاصل کرتے ہیں، جو دولت کی تقسیم میں شدید فرق کو ظاہر کرتا ہے (ورلڈ بینک، 2023)۔ آمدنی کی تقسیم میں یہ تفاوت بنگلہ دیش میں آمدنی کی عدم مساوات کو حل کرنے کی ضرورت کو اجاگر کرتا ہے، کیونکہ یہ ملک کی ترقی کو شامل اور منصفانہ بنانے میں چیلنجز پیش کرتا ہے۔ اس مسئلے کو حل کرنے کے لئے ایک جامع نقطہ نظر کی ضرورت ہے جو اقتصادی پالیسیوں، سماجی فلاحی پروگراموں، اور مخصوص مداخلتوں جیسے عوامل کو مدنظر رکھے تاکہ اقتصادی ترقی کے فوائد کو زیادہ وسیع پیمانے پر تمام طبقوں میں تقسیم کیا جا سکے۔۔
بنگلہ دیش میں چائلڈ لیبر
بنبنگلہ دیش میں پائی جانے والی اندرونی عدم مساوات اور آمدنی میں فرق کا بچوں کی تعلیمی کامیابی پر واضح اثر پڑتا ہے۔ بدقسمتی سے، بنگلہ دیش کے متعدد حصوں میں چائلڈ لیبر عام ہے، خاص طور پر دیہی علاقوں میں جہاں غربت کی شرح زیادہ ہے اور تعلیم تک رسائی محدود ہے۔ چٹگانگ، راجشاہی، اور سلہٹ جیسے اضلاع میں خاص طور پر چائلڈ لیبر کے واقعات زیادہ ہیں، کیونکہ یہ علاقے بنگلہ دیش کے دیہی کناروں میں واقع ہیں، جو ملک کے اندر موجود عدم مساوات کو ظاہر کرتے ہیں۔
اس عدم مساوات کے نتیجے میں پیدا ہونے والی غربت کا بنگلہ دیشی بچوں پر سنگین اثر پڑتا ہے، جنہیں غربت کا مقابلہ کرنے کے لیے غیر قانونی ملازمتوں میں مصروف ہونے پر مجبور کیا جاتا ہے۔ تقریباً ہر پانچ میں سے تین بچے زرعی شعبے میں کام کرتے ہیں، جبکہ 14.7% بچے صنعتی شعبے میں کام کرتے ہیں، اور باقی 23.3% بچے خدمات کے شعبے میں کام کرتے ہیں (گلوبل پیپل اسٹریٹیجسٹ، 2021)۔ اگرچہ بنگلہ دیش نے 2022 کے شروع میں بین الاقوامی محنت تنظیم (ILO) کے کنونشن کی توثیق کی تھی، جس میں ملازمت کے لیے کم سے کم عمر کو آرٹیکل 138 میں واضح طور پر بیان کیا گیا ہے، پھر بھی بنگلہ دیش میں بچے بدترین چائلڈ لیبر کی شکلوں کا سامنا کرتے ہیں، بشمول تجارتی جنسی استحصال اور زبردستی مشقت جیسے مچھلی خشک کرنے اور اینٹوں کی پیداوار کے کام۔
ایک پریشان کن پہلو یہ ہے کہ بنگلہ دیش کا محنت قانون غیر رسمی شعبے پر لاگو نہیں ہوتا، جہاں بنگلہ دیش میں زیادہ تر چائلڈ لیبر ہوتی ہے۔ مختلف شعبوں میں بچوں کے محنت کشوں کے ساتھ تشدد کے واقعات رپورٹ ہوئے ہیں، جن میں گھریلو کام بھی شامل ہے۔ 2018 میں بنگلہ دیش میں 400,000 سے زیادہ بچے گھریلو کام میں مصروف تھے، اور لڑکیاں اکثر اپنے مالکان کے ہاتھوں بدسلوکی کا شکار ہوئیں۔ اس کے علاوہ، رپورٹس سے پتہ چلتا ہے کہ جنوری سے نومبر 2012 تک 28 بچوں کو گھریلو ملازم کے طور پر کام کرتے ہوئے تشدد کا نشانہ بنایا گیا (گلوبل پیپل اسٹریٹیجسٹ، 2021)۔
یہ بچے اپنے خاندانوں کی کفالت کے لیے محض بقا کی ضرورت کے تحت رسمی اور غیر رسمی شعبوں میں کام کرنے پر مجبور ہیں اور ان کے دوبارہ پڑھائی میں واپس آنے کا امکان نہیں ہے۔ یونیسیف کی ایک رپورٹ نے یہ انکشاف کیا کہ وہ بچے جو کام کرنے کے لیے اسکول چھوڑ چکے ہیں اور عمر کے 14 سال سے کم ہیں، اوسطاً 64 گھنٹے فی ہفتہ کام کرتے ہیں۔ اس تعداد کو تناظر میں رکھتے ہوئے، یورپی محنت کے قوانین ہفتے میں 48 گھنٹے کام کرنے کی حد رکھتے ہیں، جس میں اوور ٹائم شامل ہے (یونیسیف، 2021)۔
موجودہ تعلیمی منظرنامہ
بنگلہ دیش میں تعلیمی حصول کا مسئلہ نمایاں طور پر عدم مساوات کو ظاہر کرتا ہے، جس کی وجہ ملک میں موجود ساختیاتی عدم مساوات اور تعلیمی شعبے کی حکمرانی میں کمزوریاں ہیں۔
اسکول میں شرکت کی شرح بھی تفاوت کو اجاگر کرتی ہے، جہاں 10% بچوں کی رسمی پرائمری اسکول عمر کے باوجود اسکول نہیں جاتے۔ بنگلہ دیش میں پرائمری اسکول کی عمر کے بچوں میں سب سے بڑی تفاوت غریب اور امیر بچوں کے درمیان دیکھنے کو ملتی ہے، جس کا تعلق ملک میں گھریلو سطح پر موجود وسیع تر عدم مساوات سے ہے۔ اس تفاوت کی تائید 2019 کی یونیسیف کی رپورٹ سے ہوتی ہے جس میں بتایا گیا کہ امیر بچوں کے لیے اوپر ثانوی اسکول مکمل کرنے کی شرح 50% ہے جبکہ غریب بچوں کے لیے یہ شرح صرف 12% ہے (یونیسیف، 2019)۔
بنگلہ دیشی حکومت نے پرائمری سطح پر تعلیم کی عدم مساوات کو حل کرنے کی کوشش کی ہے، جس کے لیے غریب بچوں کے لیے مشروط کیش ٹرانسفر پروگرام متعارف کرایا گیا ہے، جو دیہی علاقوں کے 40% طلباء کو کور کرتا ہے۔ تاہم، یہ پروگرام غریب بچوں کے ایک بڑے حصے کو کور نہیں کرتا، حالانکہ ان کی غربت کی سطح زیادہ ہے۔ اس اقدام کی وجہ سے پرائمری اسکول میں داخلہ کی شرح میں تیزی سے اضافہ ہوا ہے، جس میں 7.8 ملین بچوں کو 1 ڈالر فی بچہ وظیفہ مل رہا ہے۔
تاہم، غیر غریبوں کو ترجیح دینے والے متعصبانہ فیصلوں کی وجہ سے حکومت کی تعلیمی اخراجات پر مسلسل خرچ غیر متناسب طور پر مختص کیا جاتا ہے، جس میں 68% حکومت کے کل اخراجات غیر غریبوں پر خرچ ہوتے ہیں، حالانکہ یہ گروہ پرائمری اسکول کی عمر کے بچوں کی کل تعداد کا صرف 50% ہیں (ورلڈ بینک، 2018)۔ یہ اعداد و شمار اس بات کو اجاگر کرتے ہیں کہ حالانکہ حکومت کے پاس بنگلہ دیش میں تعلیمی حصول کو بہتر بنانے کی نیت ہو سکتی ہے، حقیقت میں ایک مختلف تصویر سامنے آتی ہے، جہاں دیہی بچے قومی تعلیمی حکمرانی کے حوالے سے مسلسل مشکلات کا سامنا کر رہے ہیں۔۔
نتیجہ
مختصر یہ کہ، معیاری تعلیم غربت کے خاتمے کے لیے ضروری ہے کیونکہ یہ بچوں کو بہتر زندگی کے مواقع فراہم کرتی ہے۔ بچوں کو بچوں کی مزدوری سے دور کرنے کے لیے، خاندانوں کی غربت کو کم کرنے پر زور دینا ضروری ہے۔ صرف معیاری تعلیمی حصول ہی ہر بچے کے لیے دستیاب ہو گا، چاہے اس کا سماجی و اقتصادی پس منظر کچھ بھی ہو، تو بنگلہ دیش کی آنے والی نسل حکومت کے امدادی پروگرامز کے تحت ترقی کر سکے گی۔ بنگلہ دیش کی حکومت کا بنیادی مقصد بچوں کو بچوں کی مزدوری کے نقصان دہ اثرات سے بچانا اور ان کی معیاری تعلیم کو یقینی بنانا ہونا چاہیے۔
تعلیمی حصول میں عدم مساوات کو کم کرنے کا پہلا حل حکومت کی پالیسیوں کو مزید وسیع بنانا ہے تاکہ محروم طبقات کی مالی شمولیت کو یقینی بنایا جا سکے۔ ایسی مناسب میکرو اقتصادی پالیسی اختیار کی جائے جو تعلیمی مساوات کو ترجیح دے۔ تعلیمی وسائل کی تقسیم میں مزید شفافیت حکومت بنگلہ دیش کو ایک زیادہ فلاحی نقطہ نظر اختیار کرنے پر مجبور کرے گی۔ وسائل کی اس نئی تقسیم سے نرم انفراسٹرکچر پر زیادہ توجہ دی جائے گی جیسے اسکولوں میں اساتذہ کی مناسب تعداد کی بھرتی۔
اس مسئلے کو حل کرنے کے لیے ایک اضافی طریقہ یہ ہو گا کہ حکومت بنگلہ دیش معیاری تعلیم کی اہمیت کے بارے میں مؤثر طور پر آگاہی پھیلائے۔ یہ آگاہی مہم نہ صرف شہری علاقوں کو نشانہ بنائے، بلکہ دیہی علاقوں پر بھی توجہ دے جہاں غربت کی شرح خاص طور پر زیادہ ہے۔
مزید برآں، آگاہی بڑھانے کے لیے ایک شرط یہ ہے کہ بنگلہ دیشی حکومت کو تعلیم کے بارے میں معلومات تک رسائی فراہم کرنے کے لیے ضروری انفراسٹرکچر فراہم کرنے پر توجہ مرکوز کرنی چاہیے۔ اس کا مطلب ہے کہ ملک میں غربت کی جڑ وجوہات کو حل کیا جائے تاکہ ایسا ماحول پیدا کیا جا سکے جہاں بچے مزدوری کرنے پر مجبور نہ ہوں اور اس کے بجائے وہ تعلیمی مواقع سے فائدہ اٹھا سکیں اور ایک معمول کی بچپن کا تجربہ کر سکیں۔
یہ یقینی بنانا کہ ہر بچے کو معیاری تعلیم اور محفوظ پرورش کا موقع ملے، سب سے زیادہ اہمیت رکھتا ہے۔
Hosen, Aoulad, S.M. Mujahidul Islam, and Sogir Khandoker. 2010. “Child Labor and Child Education in Bangladesh: Issues, Consequences and Involvements.” International Business Research Issues 3, no. 2: 1-8.
“The statistics are disturbing; the reality is devastating. It has been 9 years since the horrendous abduction of the Chibok girls, yet the nightmare continues as children are still being kidnapped, forcibly recruited, killed and injured– their futures torn away,” said Cristian Munduate, UNICEF Representative in Nigeria.
Historical background
Situated on the West coast of Africa, Nigeria is a country with a rich history, that was also intertwined with its history as a British colony. Only after 1960, when it gained its independence, and it was declared a republic in 1963, Nigeria faced a difficult period of various dictatorships and political regimes that led to more political instability.
Additionally, the country has faced issues such as cultural tensions, corruption and inequality. Recently, the numbers on child kidnappings have grown exponentially, particularly in conflict areas. These abductions not only have affected the families and the local communities but also have raised serious issues relating to the current administration and calls for urgent measures to be taken both at the national and international levels.
Despite the continuous efforts to address this issue, child kidnappings continue to remain one of the main challenges of the country, affecting not only the lives of children but also the country’s future. This article will look into the root causes that led to this serious issue, as well as the measures that were taken to combat the kidnappings and possible future measures to be taken by the government and international agents.
Understanding the issue
According to recent articles , more than 280 students were kidnapped from elementary schools in the northern region of the country, and seized by militants. This incident is reported to be bigger than the previous one[jc6] , also known as the Chibok girls abduction case. In 2014, Boko Haram, an Islamist jihadist group based in the northeastern region of Nigeria, abducted 276 girls from their dormitories, many of them still remaining missing to this day. This outrageous incident sparked international debate and led to the creation of the #BringBackOurGirls campaign on numerous social media platforms. The reality behind the abductions is even more horrific, leading to other crimes, such as rape, killing, and forced marriages.
Nine years after the Chibok girls incident, Amnesty International and UNICEF highlighted the lack of investigations by local authorities, abandonment of the cases and lack of action from the government. However, schools still are targets of abduction cases that are reported weekly, resulting in approximately 780 abducted children and 61 still held in captivity. [ii]Thus, international organizations are continuing to call for protection and justice for those children, as well as for measures to be taken by the Nigerian authorities.
This issue not only affects the lives of children and families, but it also associated with other issues in the country such as poverty, low rates of employment, political instability, and religious tensions. These challenges will be further discussed in the following paragraphs, explaining them in more detail.
Root causes
Poverty & unemployment
There is a strong link between poverty and unemployment and the issue of kidnapping in Nigeria. Recent rates indicate that almost 46% of Nigerians live in poverty, [iii] and this includes millions of youths who are unemployed and do not benefit from governmental help in any way.
Most of those children did not have access to education, finding their way of living on the streets, where they are most vulnerable. Kidnapping of children is used, besides for political bargains, also for economic gain (kidnapping for ransom), which seems to become more common as the economic gap between rich and poor families grows.
Religious & political factors
Religious differences and the constant tension between the Christian and Islamic citizens are also root causes of the kidnappings. The two religions have been in conflict for generations, thus leading to the abduction of numerous children who were secretly killed in the northern part of the country.
Boko Haram is an extremist terrorist group and their kidnappings are both religious and politically rooted, as declared by their leaders. They mostly target and abduct Christians, as well as people who do not recognize their ideology or political movement.
Methods and tactics of kidnappers
As methods, kidnapping of children can involve the use of offensive gadgets, weapons, specially designed technologies for tracking victims, as well as sensitive information about the targets in order to forcefully take them away from their families and instil fear in their minds. Moreover, kidnapping groups have an impressive organization strategy, in which they are structured on different teams, such as operation teams, guards, tax forces etc.
The reports show that most kidnappers carefully plan their abductions, calculating the costs and benefits of each action. Their preferences on targets vary between different factors that were previously mentioned, such as political, religious, and social backgrounds. This cost for each victim is calculated according to their Kidnap Ransom Value(KRV). In the context of child kidnapping, children from affluent families, with high social status, or from families that have bigger influence may have a higher KRV than others.
Impact on families and society
Child kidnapping can have a devastating effect on families and also on the community, instilling fear and anxiety. Apart from the evident trauma that is inflicted on the past victims, families are also affected. The emotional burden of not knowing the fate or the status of their relative who was abducted is a real trauma, that can cause stress, depression and anxiety in the long-term. Additionally, to the emotional impact, families can also be affected financially, having to face the costs of recovery, treatment or, in the cases of ransom kidnappings, the price they have to pay for having back their children.
On a larger scale, those abductions have also a long-term impact on the local communities. Kidnapped children, especially underaged girls, who can often be victims of other cruel acts, such as slavery, forced marriage and sexual molestation, have a higher impact on society. Thus, from affected families to a local community and later to the whole nation, this issue leads to insecurity, while insecurity leads to political tensions and instability.
Future challenges & solutions
Both present and past governments have tried so far to combat this issue of kidnapping children in Nigeria, through several measures. National and international bodies have collaborated and started several projects, to combat both terrorist threats by the Boko Haram group, and also the criminal activities associated with kidnapping. Other projects were designed to reduce poverty and to increase the quality and accessibility to education, in order to offer children an option and a chance not to end up living on the streets.
More effective solutions in combating this issue are to focus more and pay more attention to the root causes of kidnapping. This could include offering more employment opportunities for youth, investment projects in education, adoption of stricter and more protective laws and regulations and anti-kidnapping measures.
Conclusions
In conclusion, child kidnapping is a serious and complex issue that has different root causes, such as poverty, unemployment, religious and political tensions, and organized criminal group activities. The impact on families and society is enormous, leading to psychological and emotional long-term trauma. Thus, both international and national authorities should take urgent measures and also highlight the importance of international collaboration.
Olaniyi, A. J., & Aminu, H. P. (2021, March 19). EXAMINATION OF THE INCIDENCE OF KIDNAPPING AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION IN NIGERIA. Olaniyi | SAPIENTIA FOUNDATION JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, SCIENCES AND GENDER STUDIES. https://sfjesgs.com/index.php/SFJESGS/article/view/145
Cover Image “School children ride on a school bus in Ilupeju in Lagos, Nigeria” via Flickr
[i] See the articles from UNICEF titled “Devastating Reality: 9 Years After Chibok Abductions, Children in Northeast Nigeria Continue to Suffer the Brutal Consequences of Conflict”, and from CBS News “Witnesses in Nigeria say hundreds of children kidnapped in second mass-abduction in less than a week” for more details.
[ii] See the article from Amnesty International “Nigeria: Nine years after Chibok girls’ abducted, authorities failing to protect children”.
For the past two centuries to the present day, Lebanon has been subjected to the ever ongoing global environmental disasters and degradations, which have threatened the country’s infrastructure, national health and wellbeing as well as the overall economic climate. Most of them are also a result of the conflict period, more specifically from 2006. This article looks at the effects that environmental disasters have on education (such as destroyed school buildings and even threats to the health or the lives of students and teachers) . In country suffocating in the hazardous fog of pollution whilst suffering the effects of an extreme rise of commodity prices in their market economy, citizens live in a country that where health hazard is omnipresent and inevitable creates a population of sick and diseased people who have to then spend most of their income on healthcare, rendering them unable to afford any sort of education . It has become evident that there is an urgent need for the implementation of sustainable practices and policies in Lebanon, if the country hopes to improve its social welfare and economy. It is the responsibility of the Lebanese government to take the appropriate actions that will answer all needs of the Lebanese community. The pivotal question arises about whether our environment is being managed sustainably or if environmental concerns, along with the education sector, continue to be deprioritized. In order to have a sustainable future, both should be among the top priorities.
Current situation
Lebanon is facing severe environmental degradation due to systemic corruption, lack of effective regulation, unsustainable practices in agriculture and industry, but also from conflicts. From July 2006, the Post-Conflict Branch of the UN Environment Program started to monitor environmental issues associated with the conflict in Lebanon, by tracking potential environmental impacts on both sides of the border, in Lebanon and Israel. The assessment, conducted by the UN Environment and local partners, investigated issues related to solid and hazardous waste, industrial contamination, coastal and marine pollution, water resources, asbestos, and weapons used. The report found no evidence of depleted uranium or radioactive materials, but concerns remain about cluster bombs. In addition, the country heavily depends on generators for power consumption, and water and land have been polluted severely through human activities (deforestation). There is a large amount of disposal too. This has led to health problems, loss of biodiversity and increased exposure to natural disasters. Global cooperation and assistance, as well as the application of environmental legislation are indeed indispensable in helping Lebanon address its most pressing environmental challenges towards a healthier future.
Limited Access to Clean Water and Sanitation
According to the statistics made by USAID, Lebanon faces a significant water deficit, with only 48% of the population having access to safely managed water and 20% having access to safely managed sanitation. In schools, this lack of clean water and sanitation directly affects students who may not have access to safe drinking water or suitable sanitary facilities. These health risks, especially when specific ones recur time and again within a child’s life stream, can culminate in physical symptoms that keep sick children out of school. Schools also face challenges of providing their students and staff a safe environment as they lack access to water/sanitation with good quality infrastructure. USAID, among other organizations, along with local communities in Lebanon (plus other donors), are taking steps to provide populations access to safe drinking water and sanitation sources which would positively impact the students of tomorrow.
2020 Beirut explosion
On the 4th of August 2020, in the Port of Beirut, an explosion killed more than 200 people, injured more than 500 people, and affected approximately 280 educational institutions. What started as a simple warehouse fire of 2,750 tons of improperly stored ammonium nitrate, later caused significant environmental damage, including air and water pollution due to the release of hazardous chemicals. Beirut, previously a cultural hub with famous universities, was heavily affected by the blast, worsening its pre-existing financial struggles and threatening faculty with job loss. Thus, the Beirut explosion remains a symbol of Lebanon’s deep-seated political corruption, negligence, and the broader issues existing in the country, also recognized as one of the largest non-nuclear explosions in history.
Impact on health for students and teachers
The environmental disaster in Lebanon has significant health impacts on both students and teachers. The Beirut explosion released toxic chemicals into the air, leading to respiratory problems in nearby schools. Additionally, the country’s inadequate waste management has resulted in polluted water supplies, causing gastrointestinal illnesses among children. Schools located near landfills or industrial areas are particularly at risk, exposing students and teachers to harmful pollutants daily. These environmental challenges exacerbate existing health issues, leading to higher dropout rates and lower educational outcomes.
Existing initiatives and responses
In response to the current situation in Lebanon, several projects and initiatives have been launched and are still in the process of implementation, in order to address these challenges. Multiple international organisations, some of them being USAID or the United Nations. USAID’s project named Lebanon Water Project (LWP) finished in 2020 and aimed to improve access to safe drinking water, and to develop wastewater management. Other projects are also notable, for instance, the UNDP’s reforestation initiative aims to restore 10,000 hectares of forestland by planting 10 million trees, while UNICEF’s WASH programs have provided clean water and sanitation to over 200,000 people.
Conclusion
In summary, severe environmental degradation in the face of systemic corruption, conflict, and poor regulation has left deep impacts on both the infrastructure and health of the country, notably education. The explosion at Beirut and unrelenting problems with water scarcity and pollution raise awareness and underscore the acute need for effective environmental management and sustainable practices. Whereas most of the giant strides have been traversed by international organizations—the USAID, United Nations, or any other organization—through focused projects related to reforestation, water management, and sanitation, these must be scaled and folded into broader systemic reforms. Intervention in environmental crises in Lebanon is not only significant for natural and urban landscapes but also a healthy and fair educational environment. This shall ensure that in the securing of a sustainable future, the environmental and educational priorities of Lebanon align and are robustly attended to by comprehensive and long-term strategies and international cooperation.
References
Environmental Degradation, Energy consumption, Population Density and Economic Development in Lebanon: A time series Analysis (1971-2014) Munich Personal RePEc Archive. (n.d.). https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/74286/
“The statistics are disturbing; the reality is devastating. It has been 9 years since the horrendous abduction of the Chibok girls, yet the nightmare continues as children are still being kidnapped, forcibly recruited, killed and injured– their futures torn away,” said Cristian Munduate, UNICEF Representative in Nigeria.
Historical background
Situated on the West coast of Africa, Nigeria is a country with a rich history, that was also intertwined with itshistory as a British colony. Only after 1960, when it gained its independence, and it was declared a republic in 1963, Nigeria faced a difficult period of various dictatorships and political regimes that led to more political instability.
Additionally, the country has faced issues such as cultural tensions, corruption and inequality. Recently, the numbers on child kidnappings have grown exponentially, particularly in conflict areas. These abductions not only have affected the families and the local communities but also have raised serious issues relating to the current administration and calls for urgent measures to be taken both at the national and international levels.
Despite the continuous efforts to address this issue, child kidnappings continue to remain one of the main challenges of the country, affecting not only the lives of children but also the country’s future. This article will look into the root causes that led to this serious issue, as well as the measures that were taken to combat the kidnappings and possible future measures to be taken by the government and international agents.
Understanding the issue
According to recent articles , more than 280 students were kidnapped from elementary schools in the northern region of the country, and seized by militants. This incident is reported to be bigger than the previous one[jc6] , also known as the Chibok girls abduction case. In 2014, Boko Haram, an Islamist jihadist group based in the northeastern region of Nigeria, abducted 276 girls from their dormitories, many of them still remaining missing to this day. This outrageous incident sparked international debate and led to the creation of the #BringBackOurGirls campaign on numerous social media platforms. The reality behind the abductions is even more horrific, leading to other crimes, such as rape, killing, and forced marriages.
Nine years after the Chibok girls incident, Amnesty International and UNICEF highlighted the lack of investigations by local authorities, abandonment of the cases and lack of action from the government. However, schools still are targets of abduction cases that are reported weekly, resulting in approximately 780 abducted children and 61 still held in captivity. [ii]Thus, international organizations are continuing to call for protection and justice for those children, as well as for measures to be taken by the Nigerian authorities.
This issue not only affects the lives of children and families, but it also associated with other issues in the country such as poverty, low rates of employment, political instability, and religious tensions. These challenges will be further discussed in the following paragraphs, explaining them in more detail.
Root causes
Poverty & unemployment
There is a strong link between poverty and unemployment and the issue of kidnapping in Nigeria. Recent rates indicate that almost 46% of Nigerians live in poverty, [iii] and this includes millions of youths who are unemployed and do not benefit from governmental help in any way.
Most of those children did not have access to education, finding their way of living on the streets, where they are most vulnerable. Kidnapping of children is used, besides for political bargains, also for economic gain (kidnapping for ransom), which seems to become more common as the economic gap between rich and poor families grows.
Religious & political factors
Religious differences and the constant tension between the Christian and Islamic citizens are also root causes of the kidnappings. The two religions have been in conflict for generations, thus leading to the abduction of numerous children who were secretly killed in the northern part of the country.
Boko Haram is an extremist terrorist group and their kidnappings are both religious and politically rooted, as declared by their leaders. They mostly target and abduct Christians, as well as people who do not recognize their ideology or political movement.
Methods and tactics of kidnappers
As methods, kidnapping of children can involve the use of offensive gadgets, weapons, specially designed technologies for tracking victims, as well as sensitive information about the targets in order to forcefully take them away from their families and instil fear in their minds. Moreover, kidnapping groups have an impressive organization strategy, in which they are structured on different teams, such as operation teams, guards, tax forces etc.
The reports show that most kidnappers carefully plan their abductions, calculating the costs and benefits of each action. Their preferences on targets vary between different factors that were previously mentioned, such as political, religious, and social backgrounds. This cost for each victim is calculated according to their Kidnap Ransom Value(KRV). In the context of child kidnapping, children from affluent families, with high social status, or from families that have bigger influence may have a higher KRV than others.
Impact on families and society
Child kidnapping can have a devastating effect on families and also on the community, instilling fear and anxiety. Apart from the evident trauma that is inflicted on the past victims, families are also affected. The emotional burden of not knowing the fate or the status of their relative who was abducted is a real trauma, that can cause stress, depression and anxiety in the long-term. Additionally, to the emotional impact, families can also be affected financially, having to face the costs of recovery, treatment or, in the cases of ransom kidnappings, the price they have to pay for having back their children.
On a larger scale, those abductions have also a long-term impact on the local communities. Kidnapped children, especially underaged girls, who can often be victims of other cruel acts, such as slavery, forced marriage and sexual molestation, have a higher impact on society. Thus, from affected families to a local community and later to the whole nation, this issue leads to insecurity, while insecurity leads to political tensions and instability.
Future challenges & solutions
Both present and past governments have tried so far to combat this issue of kidnapping children in Nigeria, through several measures. National and international bodies have collaborated and started several projects, to combat both terrorist threats by the Boko Haram group, and also the criminal activities associated with kidnapping. Other projects were designed to reduce poverty and to increase the quality and accessibility to education, in order to offer children an option and a chance not to end up living on the streets.
More effective solutions in combating this issue are to focus more and pay more attention to the root causes of kidnapping. This could include offering more employment opportunities for youth, investment projects in education, adoption of stricter and more protective laws and regulations and anti-kidnapping measures.
Conclusions
In conclusion, child kidnapping is a serious and complex issue that has different root causes, such as poverty, unemployment, religious and political tensions, and organized criminal group activities. The impact on families and society is enormous, leading to psychological and emotional long-term trauma. Thus, both international and national authorities should take urgent measures and also highlight the importance of international collaboration.
Olaniyi, A. J., & Aminu, H. P. (2021, March 19). EXAMINATION OF THE INCIDENCE OF KIDNAPPING AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION IN NIGERIA. Olaniyi | SAPIENTIA FOUNDATION JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, SCIENCES AND GENDER STUDIES. https://sfjesgs.com/index.php/SFJESGS/article/view/145
Cover Image “School children ride on a school bus in Ilupeju in Lagos, Nigeria” via Flickr
[i] See the articles from UNICEF titled “Devastating Reality: 9 Years After Chibok Abductions, Children in Northeast Nigeria Continue to Suffer the Brutal Consequences of Conflict”, and from CBS News “Witnesses in Nigeria say hundreds of children kidnapped in second mass-abduction in less than a week” for more details.
[ii] See the article from Amnesty International “Nigeria: Nine years after Chibok girls’ abducted, authorities failing to protect children”.
Tanzania is a country with a population of 45 million people, half of which are under the age of 18. According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), about 4.2 million of Tanzania’s children (5-17 years old) engage in child labour, almost evenly split between boys and girls. Unfortunately, these children rarely earn anything for their labour as 92.4% work as unpaid family helpers while only 4% work in paid employment (International Labour Organisation and National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania, 2024). It is important to note that these numbers exclude any illegal activities involving children, like child trafficking, commercial sexual exploitation, and child slavery.
Why are these children working?
The main cause leading to child labour in Tanzania is poverty. As of 2022, half of Tanzania’s population – 26 million people – lived in extreme poverty (Cowling, 2024). Thus these families rely heavily on child labour to meet the financial needs of their home.
Poor families in rural areas dependent on farming for their livelihood cannot afford to buy machinery or hire help to assist with farming. Hence, children from these families take on a big part of the responsibilities that come with farming. This kind of child labour falls under the category of unpaid family work. Most of these children are exposed to harsh climates while working on farms and work gruellingly long hours.
In addition to carrying out unpaid family work to help with finances, these children simply cannot afford to go to school. Many children from such backgrounds, particularly those living in rural areas, also need schools within safe distance of their homes. With no access to public transport and the inability to afford private transport, children who go to school must walk long distances to do so. Therefore, many children in these cases end up dropping out of school, unable to keep up with the work at home as well as studies.
Unpaid family work: tobacco farms
Child labour itself is not the only problem faced by Tanzanian children, their safety and well-being in performing hazardous work for low to no pay is also a critical matter. A good example of this is child labour in tobacco-growing communities. This work takes the form of unpaid family work.
Children working in this industry perform a wide range of duties from field preparation to construction of barns, packaging, and cutting firewood. Working in open tobacco fields exposes these children to extreme weather conditions: scorching heat from the sun. On top of that, children spend hours working in unsanitary and unventilated sheds used to manage and store tobacco. All of this work involves handling tobacco and toxic fertilizers without any protective gear, having detrimental effects on the health of these developing children. There is also limited access to first aid kits in cases of injury while working on the farm.
In 2016, ILO and ARISE conducted an assessment on children working in hazardous conditions and its impact on their health. During the research, it was found that half of the children interviewed for the study were working 5-8 hours a day, while one-third were working more than 8 hours a day – exceeding the standard working limit for adults – in dangerous conditions. Hence, in addition to the health risks associated with working in tobacco fields without protection, these children also suffer from extreme exhaustion due to the long hours and the physical demands that such work requires.
Child domestic workers
Another type of child labour common in Tanzania is in the form of child domestic workers. According to Anti-slavery International (2024), around 3% of the urban homes in Tanzania have child domestic workers. Almost a third of these child workers are between the ages of 10 to 14 and most of them (more than 80%) are girls (Anti-slavery International, 2024).
Tanzanian children end up in domestic servitude in two main ways: 1) Girls who run away from their families escaping domestic violence or forced marriages – a common practice in rural Tanzania where daughters are married off at a very young age for ‘the bride price’ to reduce the financial burden on the family, 2) Girls who are sent to cities to work as domestic workers by their families as an alternative to child marriage.
This kind of child labour comes with its risks. Unfortunately, many child domestic workers suffer physical and sexual abuse at the hands of their employers. Parents who send their kids to cities for this kind of work are often unaware of the abuse and exploitation faced by the children at the hands of their employers. These child domestic workers find themselves in extremely vulnerable positions and under the complete control of their employers as most of them do not have any formal work contract (only about 0.5 % of them have formal contracts), little to no pay for working up to 60+ hours a week, and no access to proper schooling (Anti-slavery International, 2024). With no financial independence and isolation from family, these children have no means of escaping the abuse they suffer at the hands of their employers. According to Anti-slavery International (2017), 40% of children working as domestic workers suffered physical abuse, 17% experienced sexual abuse, and more than 60% were illiterate.
Education and child labour
Child labour has a direct impact on children’s early education and a long-term impact on decent employment in adulthood. According to the International Labour Organisation (2018), most of the children engaged in child labour (nearly 95%) work in agriculture and almost all agricultural labour (92.5%) is unpaid family work. This type of work entails long hours, leaving no time for studies, hobbies, and activities with friends. Hence, Tanzanian children in child labour have a much higher school dropout rate than children who are not working. These working children, even if enrolled in school, are at a disadvantage in maintaining their studies and grades than children who are not in child labour.
Furthermore, 8% of Tanzanian children within the compulsory schooling age (7-13 years) are not enrolled in school (International Labour Organisation, 2018). 40% of these children have either never been to school or have dropped out of school due to several reasons such as the distance of the school from home, and the cost of attending school (International Labour Organisation, 2018). Some of these children are not interested in attending school, while some of them are looking for work, others cannot go to school due to family responsibilities such as caring for sick family members or children.
Thus Tanzania’s child labour has a detrimental impact on its children’s early education and development, creating adults with little to no basic skills needed to secure decent employment, therefore creating an endless cycle of poverty and child labour.
International Labour Organisation and ARISE. (2016). ILO/ARISE Rapid Assessment on Child Labour in Tobacco Growing Communities in Tabora, Tanzania. Published by ILO/IPEC in Geneva.
Brazil’s departure from sole reliance on GDP is a testament to its commitment to capturing a more comprehensive understanding of societal advancement. i
Brazil’s departure from sole reliance on GDP is a testament to its commitment to capturing a more comprehensive understanding of societal advancement. iii Brazil’s commitment to inclusive economic growth is exemplified through a multi-pronged approach. The cornerstone of these efforts is the implementation of social programs, with Bolsa Família standing out as a pivotal initiative. xiv
In addition to direct financial assistance, Brazil employs a progressive tax system to ensure that the burden of public finances is proportionally distributed. xvii
Brazil’s vast geographical expanse presents both opportunities and challenges. Regional disparities in development, compounded by infrastructural challenges, demand targeted policies to address specific needs. xxiv
xvii Immervoll, H., Levy, H., Nogueira, J. R., O’Donoghue, C., & de Siqueira, R. B. (2006). The impact of Brazil’s tax-benefit system on inequality and poverty.
xxiv Griesse, M. A. (2007). The geographic, political, and economic context for corporate social responsibility in Brazil. Journal of business ethics, 73, 21-37.
Iran has a rich cultural heritage and a long history of educational excellence, dating back to ancient times when it was known as Persia. However, the country is currently confronted with various issues in the education sector that jeopardise its ability to provide high-quality education to its citizens.
Around 7 million children lack access to education, and an estimated 25 million illiterates are in Iran.
Poverty
Education is considered compulsory in Iran for children aged 6 to 11. However, access to education remains a significant barrier in Iran, particularly for pupils from low-income families.
One of the main barriers to education is poverty, particularly in rural areas, where access to schools, qualified teachers, and transportation is limited.
Over the past three years, fewer students have been attending college. According to Iranian state media, this decrease is due to poverty, the absence of free education, and the lack of government support for college students. The total number of college students fell from 4,811,581 in the academic year 2014–2015 to 3,616,114 in the academic year 2017–2018.
Gender inequality
Additionally, Iran’s educational system still struggles with gender inequality. Girls are still underrepresented in higher education, despite the fact that their enrolment in primary and secondary education has increased dramatically over the previous few decades.
According to the World Bank, the literacy rate for adult girls in Iran is 85%, compared to 92% for adult boys. Many families still prioritise early marriage over their daughters’ education.
Because of this, female students encounter substantial obstacles while wanting to pursue education beyond the first grade, and gender segregation in schools restricts their ability to pursue further education.
Monetary issues
Another threat to Iran’s educational system is a lack of capital, which leads to a dearth of trained teachers, inadequate facilities, and antiquated equipment.
Many educational facilities are subpar and unsafe, with a scarcity of teaching areas. In fact, one-third of Iran’s schools are so flimsy that they must be demolished and rebuilt.
The city council chair in Tehran, Ray and Tajrish, Mohsen Hashemi, said that “700 schools in Tehran will be destroyed in case of a severe storm, let alone earthquake.”
Despite the government’s efforts to enhance educational investment, Iran’s educational expenditure remains low compared to other countries in the region.
According to the World Bank, Iran’s education expenditure as a percentage of GDP was 3.6% in 2020, much lower than the average education expenditure in other upper-middle-income nations.
While Iranian Constitution states, “The government is obliged to provide free elementary and high school education for all members of the nation and facilitate free higher education for all until the country is self-sufficient.” In contrast, Rouhani has ordered to shut down many schools in rural communities and to cut down the budget in the past few years.
An assistant professor at Allameh University stated that Iran’s percentage allocation of money to education is much less than the United Nations’ recommendation.
In addition, the school system cannot keep up with technological improvements due to a lack of resources. The lack of technology investment has led to outmoded equipment and a lack of teacher training, which has limited the use of technology in education and hampered Iranian students’ acquisition of digital skills.
Digital Inequality
Adding on, digital inequality is a problem that students have faced in recent years. A 2017 survey showed that 28% of Iranians had no internet access or only minimal internet access. While those with internet access, 80% of the users lived in cities and only 20% in rural areas.
During the coronavirus pandemic in 2019, when online learning was prioritised in Iran to reduce the virus’s spread, a considerable number of students dropped out. This was due to their inability to buy an internet connection and limited internet access in their area.
Political interference
Additionally, in Iran, the educational system is greatly influenced by the government, which has resulted in the politicisation of education and the promotion of a specific ideology.
The Iranian government strictly controls the curriculum, textbooks, and instructional materials used in schools and universities. School curricula are frequently linked with the government’s political and religious ideas, emphasising promoting Islamic values and the government’s version of Iranian culture and history.
The Iranian government’s influence on the educational system extends beyond classroom content.
It also affects the hiring and firing of teachers and university professors and the appointment of administrators. This can result in discriminatory hiring practices and the exclusion of individuals who do not align with the government’s ideologies, limiting the educational system’s diversity of perspectives and ideas.
Moreover, the Iranian government actively monitors and controls academic research, publications, and activities within the educational institutions.
Scholars, educators, and students who express opposing viewpoints or engage in critical thinking undermining the government’s narratives face restriction, intimidation, and even persecution. This generates fear and self-censorship among educators and students, restricting academic independence and the sharing of varied ideas and opinions.
As a result, the politics of education in Iran may impair students’ ability to think critically, question, and consider alternate points of view. It can limit their exposure to different points of view, limit their academic independence, and hinder their capacity to acquire critical thinking abilities, which are necessary for personal growth, societal progress, and fostering an open and inclusive intellectual environment.
Depletion of talent Finally, brain drain is another educational challenge that Iran is currently confronting. Many talented and educated Iranians are fleeing the nation for better career prospects and higher pay.
According to the IMF, which studied 61 nations, Iran has the highest rate of brain drain, with 150,000 educated Iranians leaving their native country each year. The annual economic loss from brain drain is estimated at $50 billion or higher.
This brain drain deprives the country of its brightest minds, reducing the country’s potential for economic growth and progress.
Addressing these challenges requires significant reforms and investment in the education system.
The Iranian government must prioritise education by boosting funding in schools and universities, hiring and training qualified teachers, and upgrading curricula to emphasise critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity.
Furthermore, the government must address educational challenges experienced by female students, particularly in rural regions, and promote gender equality in education.
Conclusion
Investing in technology is also essential for developing Iran’s educational system. The government must offer the most up-to-date technology to schools and institutions and invest in training teachers to use it successfully in the classroom. This will not only help students build digital abilities, but it will also prepare them for the demands of the twenty-first-century labour market.
By doing so, Iran can overcome these challenges and build a more prosperous and successful future.
Togo, officially known as the Togolese Republic, is a small tropical nation on Africa’s west coast. It is bordered by Ghana, Benin, and Burkina Faso and is home to approximately 8.5 million people. Despite its scenic coastal location along the Gulf of Guinea, Togo remains one of the least developed countries in the region, with significant disparities between rural and urban areas.¹
This article aims to delve into several significant challenges confronting the education system in Togo. Education is an essential part of Togo’s national development roadmap for 2020–2025. While crises in Togo have hindered progress in education, the government has committed to developing effective education strategies. The development of Togo’s education system includes addressing numerous challenges.²
Poverty
Upon the culmination of primary school, over 50% of children in low- and middle-income nations struggle to read and comprehend a basic story. This learning crisis threatens countries’ efforts to build human capital and achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), undermining sustainable public disclosure. The poverty level is twice as high in rural areas (58.8%) as in urban areas (26.5%) in Togo. This disparity largely stems from concentrated economic growth in modern sectors and limited access to quality services. Notably, poverty is more prevalent in female-headed households, with a rate of 45.7% compared to 45.2% in male-headed households. Women face greater vulnerability due to limited access to economic opportunities, education, healthcare, and other essential socio-economic amenities.
Togo’s Human Capital Index (HCI) score, standing at 0.43, reflects the concerning reality that children born in Togo today will only achieve 43% of their potential productivity as adults due to limited access to essential services such as healthcare, education, and proper nutrition. The experiences children have in early childhood significantly impact their lifelong development. Providing nurturing care during this crucial period is essential. Pre-primary education is recognised as a vital intervention in early childhood.³
Primary Education Expenditure
Primary education expenditure per child of primary education age in Togo is USD 297 (PPP), 47.2% below the average for the Sub-Saharan Africa region and 65.3% above the average for low-income countries. Togo’s education sector suffers from chronic underfunding, leading to insufficient resources for schools, low teacher salaries, and inadequate infrastructure. This affects the overall quality of education and limits the government’s ability to address other educational challenges effectively.⁴
In Togo, some private elementary schools (e.g., École Française and the American School of Lomé) have computer laboratories, but the school fees are not within the reach of the average Togolese family. Some private secondary schools, particularly those following the French education system and participating in external French examinations, provide computer laboratories for their students’ use., but only about 5% of Togolese youth know how to use computers.⁵
Learning Poverty
Togo, as well as many other African countries, is facing a learning crisis. Learning poverty is one of the factors contributing to low educational attainment. As per the World Bank and UNESCO estimations, 82% of children are not able to read and understand an age-appropriate text by age 10. Boys are less likely to achieve minimum proficiency at the end of primary school (81.5%) than girls (79.8%) in Togo. Notably, learning poverty rates are higher among boys than girls in Togo. In Togo, data from large-scale student learning assessments reveals that 81 per cent of children fail to reach the Minimum Proficiency Levels (MPL) by the end of primary school, as indicated by statistics from grade 6 in 2019. 5 per cent of primary school-aged children are not enrolled in school.⁶
According to the 2016 PASEC assessment at the beginning of schooling, the Togolese education system is among the least effective, with at least 50% of students who do not sufficiently master the knowledge and skills to pursue schooling in good conditions.⁷
Adolescent Girls Out of School
In Togo, 28 per cent (2017) of adolescent girls are out of school. Violence against children is still frequent and rarely denounced because it is considered legitimate by adults. The practice of child marriage affects 11.2% of girls aged 15–19. Girls’ dropouts persist because of pregnancies and the risk of violence.⁸
School dropout rates
The share of out-of-school children is lower for boys (2.8%) than for girls (7.8%). According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, the primary school completion rate was 87 per cent in 2022 for girls and 91 per cent for boys. However, the completion rates for lower secondary education indicate a significant decline, with only 59.9 per cent of girls and 66.8 per cent of boys completing their education. Gross enrolment rates for secondary education were 58 per cent for females and 70 per cent for males. Gross enrolment in tertiary education was 11 per cent for women in 2020 versus 19 per cent for men. This shows a significant drop-off in enrolment and completion as students progress to the next levels.⁹¹⁰
The language of instruction throughout the school system is French, the official language of Togo. However, local languages are used in public and denominational kindergartens, but they remain confined to this level of education. ¹¹ There exists a concern within certain segments of the Togolese population regarding the potential premature erosion of the effectiveness of French. As it stands, French is the exclusive medium of education and serves as the primary language for communication across various sectors of society, including infrastructure and commercial endeavors. There is an observable deterioration in the teaching standards of the French language.¹²
Economic and social development issues
Togo faces significant challenges in achieving universal primary education. There are pronounced social disparities, particularly in academic programs, with girls and disadvantaged groups bearing the brunt of these inequalities. Regional disparities also persist, limiting schooling opportunities across different areas. Primary and secondary education suffer from high repetition rates, highlighting inefficiencies in the education system. Additionally, there is a notable gap between the skills acquired through education and the job market demands.
Togo’s education sector’s learning and working conditions are substandard, characterised by insufficient resources for purchasing equipment. Access to various levels and types of learning remains limited, exacerbating the educational divide. Furthermore, the distribution of teachers is uneven, with many being underqualified and exploited. The scarcity of books and teaching materials further hampers the learning process for both educators and students.
The utilisation of information and statistical systems is minimal, hindering effective planning and decision-making in education. Administrative management is also lacking, contributing to inefficiencies and bureaucratic hurdles. Moreover, there is inadequate oversight of the demands from the socio-professional sectors, leading to mismatches between educational outputs and the needs of the workforce. Addressing these multifaceted challenges is crucial for improving the quality and accessibility of education in Togo.¹³
Disputes between the government and teachers
Togo has experienced significant tensions and disputes between the government and teachers in recent years. These disputes often revolve around inadequate pay, poor working conditions, a lack of resources, and demands for educational reforms.
The SDI study (2016) has shown that most teachers do not master teaching content. On average, only 45% of the teachers scored well on a test designed to measure student achievements.¹⁴¹⁵
Highlight success stories and initiatives
Togo is ranked 162nd in 2021-2022 in terms of human development. The index of the gender development rate is 0.849, and the gender inequality index is 0.580. The government continues to expand access to social services and strengthen the institutional framework for gender.¹⁶
The country is making enormous efforts to recruit 3,300 teachers, but the State is still facing a demand to improve student performance. Despite these challenges, the transition rate from primary to secondary education increased to 84.5 per cent.¹⁷
For the past four years, a mobile library has been travelling through remote areas in Togo. It is suitable for those parents who cannot afford the books. This effort made Togo’s history known to generations in the French language through storytelling, with the belief that modern education must be combined with traditional ways that were lost due to colonisation.¹⁸
Owing to funding from Japan, the World Bank, and UNICEF, the refrigeration of vaccines during the pandemic has been reinforced or renewed in almost 95% of the country’s health facilities. The percentage of children with access to primary health care at the community level in the Savannah and Kara regions increased from 80.4% in 2021 to 82.2% in 2022.¹⁹
The UNICEF office in Togo has received vital support from financial partners, covering 32% of the COVID-19 Response Plan. These funds, provided by the Government of Japan, USAID, the Global Partnership for Education, and VLISCO, have played a crucial role in implementing measures to combat the spread of the virus and mitigate its socio-economic impact in Togo.
Togo’s formal education system operates on a 2-6-6 structure, and efforts have been made to enhance its quality and effectiveness. UNICEF and UNESCO conducted a comprehensive analysis of the Togolese education sector, proposing strategies to improve learning outcomes. As a result, Togo has adopted a national teacher policy aimed at enhancing teacher training, professionalism, and effectiveness, thereby improving educational standards across the country.
UNFPA has initiated a national program targeting teenage pregnancies and marriages, both within school and out-of-school settings. Aligned with Togo’s National Equity, Equality, and Gender Policy, this program aims to tackle gender disparities in education and promote gender equality. By addressing issues such as early marriages and pregnancies, the program contributes to fostering a more inclusive and equitable education system in Togo.
The country took steps in early 2022 to make birth registration free, the rate of which is nearly 83%. Several investments have improved children’s access to justice without reducing the extent of children’s deprivation or improving their care.²⁰
Conclusion
Addressing these challenges requires comprehensive reforms, including investments in infrastructure, teacher training, curriculum development, and policies aimed at promoting gender equality and inclusivity in education and enhancing social protection initiatives. Additionally, fostering partnerships with international organisations and donors can help mobilise resources to support education initiatives in Togo.
¹⁸ Togo education: A better focus on indigenous authors • FRANCE 24 English. (n.d.). www.youtube.com. Retrieved February 14, 2024, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0M6ax4BS4_c
Every student counts! In 2011, this slogan was the starting shot of the Caribbean and European Netherlands’ combined efforts to achieve educational equity and raise the quality of education on the islands of Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba. Although quality and equity increased, the Caribbean Netherlands still dealt with significant educational challenges in 2023. This article will explore three main challenges: the care for students with special needs, multilingualism, and the effects of poverty.
This article analyses these three challenges to understand the accessibility and quality of education in the Caribbean Netherlands. But first, we need to go into the governance structure of the islands and their relationship with the European Netherlands to fully understand the barriers to tackling the challenges and efforts to address them. Also, the policy programs addressing education and the Education Agendas will be given special attention to show continuing good practices and to explain the context in which the current challenges continue.
This map shows us the Kingdom of the Netherlands, consisting of the European Netherlands and the Caribbean Netherlands. Both thank their name to their geographical location (CC BY-SA 3.0 DEED, Wikimedia Commons: TUBS).
Context-Specific Efforts to Overcome Education Inequity
In 1948, Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba became a part of the Dutch Antilles, a separate country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. This changed in 2010: the islands became public bodies under the European Netherlands. Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba are now local governments. An executive council, an island council, and the Dutch national government govern each island. Since this change, the islands have been referred to as the Caribbean Netherlands or the BES-islands.[i]
The Dutch Ministry for Education, Culture and Science is responsible for education. The schools on the islands are part of the Dutch education system and are monitored by the Netherlands’ Inspectorate of Education.[ii] The Dutch Ministry of Education, island councils and other stakeholders cooperated over the past twelve years to develop three policy programs, the Education Agendas.
The Education Agendas address educational equity between the two parts of the Netherlands. The idea is that it should not matter whether a child grows up in the European Netherlands or the Caribbean Netherlands; educational opportunities should be the same.[iii] The agendas address the specific context of the islands, as there are apparent differences from the European Netherlands in terms of culture, history, identity, language, scale, and organization.[iv]
The first two agendas address all three islands within one agenda. During the draft of the first Education Agenda (2011-2016), the level of education of many schools on the BES islands did not fulfil European nor Caribbean Dutch standards.[v] By 2016, most schools reached basic quality standards. However, particular areas still required improvement, again addressed in the second Agenda (2017-2020). [vi] The evaluation of this Agenda in 2020 shows that the main challenges are care for students with special needs and multilingualism.[vii]
While the third Education Agenda has not yet been published, it shall address these challenges.[viii] Furthermore, this agenda will address the challenges on each island separately, showing us a further commitment to context-specific policymaking, which hopefully improves the effectiveness of the third Education Agenda.
Educational Challenge I: Care for Students with Special Needs
The first challenge to discuss is the care for students with special needs. The right to education for children with special needs is a human right. It is taken up in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. While the last Convention was ratified by the European Netherlands, it does not apply to the Caribbean Netherlands.
A statement by the Expertise Centre Education Care Saba in 2021 summarizes the importance of care for these students: “Students have the right to feel included in a safe and reliable environment with a structured pedagogical climate that is tolerant and encouraging for the development of all”.[ix] Now, children with special needs still face situations in which education is not tailored to them, meaning they do not profit from education as their peers or eventually drop out. Some children do not have access to education at all. Children with a higher need for care face difficulties.[x]
An example of inadequate care is the case of the ten-year-old Arianny on Bonaire. In 2022, the non-speaking girl was in the news as she could not attend education on Bonaire. Arianny had no access. Members of the Dutch parliament asked the then minister of Education, Dennis Wiersma, questions about her situation and the general situation on Bonaire. The minister reacted that all children should have access to education and are required to attend school, despite specific situations. The situation of Arianny and the research in other reports show us that is not yet the reality.[xi]
Why do these problems continue even after the two Education Agendas?
Student care on the BES islands is not comparable to care in the European Netherlands. While both experience similar problems, the expert centre on Saba notes that the main difference derives from scale and school culture, for example, the lack of awareness about the differing needs of students. This also applies to the other islands: children with special needs continue to follow the same program as their peers even though they need additional care. Moreover, there are relatively more students with special needs in Saba than in the European Netherlands. Possible explanations are a lack of education planning, differentiation in the classroom and special education needs teachers.[xii] Also, non-school-related causes affect children’s learning capabilities, such as poverty and domestic violence.[xiii]
This continuing lack of care for students with special needs thus asks for extra efforts. Renewed attention to this problem and policies need to tackle the problem, ensuring (continuance of) access to education for children like Arianny. Individual needs must be considered to optimize the learning experience of already vulnerable students.
Three kids sitting in the port of Kralendijk, the capital of Bonaire (CC BY-NC 2.0 DEED, Flickr: Globewriter).
Educational Challenge II: Multilingualism
Because of the different languages being spoken on each island, the language of education has been a thorny issue. Encountered challenges have been linguistic imperialism, learning challenges, and difficulty accessing tertiary education in Dutch.
On Bonaire, most inhabitants speak Papiamento as their mother tongue. On Saba and St. Eustasius, a local variety of Caribbean English has the upper hand. Despite this, Dutch was the only officially recognized language until the beginning of the century thus, education was in Dutch.[xiv]Nowadays, Papiamento and English can both be used in education. This represents the reality of the islands and a respect for local languages, making it a laudable development and a move away from linguistic imperialism.
However, it also causes new educational challenges, especially for learning results and further education. On Saba and St. Eustatius, the instruction language is English. Dutch is being taught as a foreign language.[xv] St. Eustatius switched to English as an instruction language in secondary education in 2014. Dutch proved to negatively affect learning outcomes and attitudes towards the Dutch language.[xvi] Saba has used English as the instruction language for a more extended period. However, only teaching Dutch as a foreign language hinders access to tertiary education. A low proficiency in Dutch means that students from these islands cannot access (all) tertiary education institutions in the European Netherlands.[xvii] This is especially problematic because the Caribbean Netherlands does not have any universities or universities of applied sciences, meaning inhabitants must move to pursue tertiary education.[xviii]
On Bonaire, education starts in Papiamento – the native language of most students – for the first two years of primary school. After these years, the instruction language became Dutch. This causes risks, as the case of St. Eustatius before 2014 showed. Furthermore, it can hinder learning outcomes as children might struggle with Dutch.[xix]
Therefore, multilingualism leads to specific challenges for students regarding access to further education and learning outcomes. It has been difficult to find a balance between Dutch, Papiamento, and Caribbean English that will tackle these challenges. A comprehensive language policy should be developed per island, where native languages and Dutch get a well-balanced place within the education system.
Educational Challenge III: Poverty
This third educational challenge goes beyond the education agendas as it intertwines with the overall situation on the BES islands: life on the islands has become increasingly expensive, and salaries and government support are insufficient to afford this.
This is why children on the BES islands noted poverty as one of the biggest challenges in their lives in 2021. And high poverty levels have continued since then: 11,000 people live below the poverty line in 2023. This is an extremely high number, considering that the islands’ total population is 30,000.[xx] In comparison to the European Netherlands: 800,000 live in poverty on a population of almost 18 million.[xxi]
What do such numbers mean for Caribbean students?
The rapport between the Dutch Ombudsman and the Children’s Ombudsman gives us the distressing example of Shanice, an 11-year-old Bonairean girl. Her mother is a single caretaker, working multiple jobs to stay afloat. She is more often at work than at home. Shanice cares for her younger brothers and sisters, looks after the groceries, and wash dishes instead of having the opportunity to focus on her studies. She goes to school: she likes it there. However, she often feels stressed because of her many responsibilities. Then, she cannot focus or learn. At the same time, Shanice pressures herself to learn: she wants to have a different life than her mom.[xxii]
This example shows how poverty gives children many responsibilities and negatively affects their learning. This example does not comprise all adverse effects. When not having enough money, healthy food is not always a priority, just like schoolbooks or having a good place to study. Extra school costs might not be paid. Parents and kids both experience high-stress levels, which might cause parents to be (emotionally) unavailable and children to have problems focusing. All negatively affect the school outcomes of children.[xxiii]
To tackle this problem of poverty and its effects, there should be governmental support to lift children and their parents from poverty. However, government policies are one of the causes of poverty: the model of living costs for the BES island presents living costs as lower than they are. Policies are developed based on this model. Moreover, this is a recurring argument for not higher social welfare: ensuring social welfare will demotivate people, and they will not work anymore.[xxiv] Hence, policies have contributed to the problem of poverty.
In addition, inhabitants of the BES islands do not always have access to the same resources European Dutch individuals have. These resources are, however, of great importance: European Dutch depend on them, but Caribbean Dutch cannot even access them.[xxv] This is possible because of the special status of the islands. The UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination noted in 2021 that such differences between the European Netherlands and Caribbean Netherlands are deplorable, that discrimination should be fought, and that equality should be pursued.
The Dutch government has been taking steps. A law ensuring the equal treatment of all citizens in the Netherlands will come into effect for the Caribbean Netherlands.[xxvi] The exact date is, however, unclear. Furthermore, the model of living costs will be adjusted in July 2024. From that date onwards, inhabitants of the Caribbean Netherlands will be able to breach the gap between social security and living costs that exists now. In addition, the Dutch government does undertake other efforts to address poverty, but the Netherlands Institute for Human Rights judges them to be insufficient. [xxvii]
The Dutch government seems to increasingly take responsibility for the high poverty levels in the Caribbean Netherlands. A necessary development: despite statements such as ‘Every student counts!’, the Dutch government has discriminated against Caribbean Dutch citizens. The unfavourable treatment they experience puts them behind their fellow citizens in Europe.
Conclusion
Education quality has increased significantly on the Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba islands. Great efforts have been made to tailor policies to the local contexts of the islands, which is essential for education equity between the European and Caribbean Netherlands. This is praiseworthy and will hopefully continue with the third Education Agenda.
However, great educational challenges persist on the islands. Benefits from and access to education are under pressure. While multilingualism affects all students, poverty and the lack of special care affect some students disproportionately. Furthermore, the problem of poverty and lack of special care show clear signs of discrimination, which should be condemned and stopped. The case of the islands of Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba thus indicates the need for policies tackling discrimination and a comprehensive plan to improve education further.
References
Cover Image: A young girl in costume during a parade on Bonaire (CC BY-SA 4.0 DEED, Wikimedia Commons: Atsme).
[iv] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijsagenda voor Caribisch Nederland: samen werken aan kwaliteit. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. 1. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/binaries/rijksdienstcn-nederlands/documenten/brochures/onderwijs-cultuur/onderwijsagendas/eerste-onderwijsagenda-caribisch-nederland/index/Eerste_Onderwijsagenda_NL.pdf
[v] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijsagenda voor Caribisch Nederland: samen werken aan kwaliteit. 1.
[vi] Inspectie van het Onderwijs. (2017). De Ontwikkeling van het Onderwijs in Caribisch Nederland 2014-2016. Onderwijsinspectie. 39-41. https://www.onderwijsinspectie.nl/documenten/rapporten/2017/03/21/rapport-onderwijsontwikkelingen-caribisch-nederland-20142016
[vii] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 20. https://www.eerstekamer.nl/overig/20210708/evaluatie_tweede_onderwijsagenda/document3/f=/vlkch545eltd_opgemaakt.
[viii] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 22.
[ix]. Langerak, Lisa. (2021). Inclusive Special Education on Saba. Expertise Center Education Care. 2. https://www.learningsaba.com/2021_Care_Coordinator/210614%20Project%20plan%20Inclusive%20Special%20Education%20Saba.pdf
[x] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 20.
[xxii] Kinderombudsman, and Nationale Ombudsman. (2023). Caribische kinderen van de rekening. Kinderombudsman. 4. https://www.nationaleombudsman.nl/publicaties/rapporten/2022058#:~:text=Dit%20rapport%20beschrijft%20de%20knelpunten,zelf%20als%20voor%20hun%20kinderen.
[xxiii] Nederlands Jeugdinstituut. (N.d). De invloed van armoede op schoolprestaties. Nederlands Jeugdinstituut. https://www.nji.nl/armoede/invloed-op-schoolprestaties
[xxvi] Netherlands Institute for Human Rights. (2023). Caribisch Nederland krijgt wetgeving gelijke behandeling. College voor de Rechten van de Mens. https://www.mensenrechten.nl/actueel/nieuws/2023/01/25/caribisch-nederland-krijgt-wetgeving-gelijke-behandeling#:~:text=Iedereen%20die%20zich%20in%20Nederland,2010%20bijzondere%20gemeentes%20van%20Nederland
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