ईरान के पास एक समृद्ध सांस्कृतिक विरासत और शैक्षिक उत्कृष्टता का एक लंबा इतिहास है, जो प्राचीन काल से है जब इसे फारस के नाम से जाना जाता था। हालाँकि, देश वर्तमान में शिक्षा क्षेत्र में विभिन्न मुद्दों का सामना कर रहा है जो अपने नागरिकों को उच्च गुणवत्ता वाली शिक्षा प्रदान करने की इसकी क्षमता को खतरे में डालते हैं।
ईरान में लगभग 7 मिलियन बच्चों की शिक्षा तक पहुंच नहीं है, और अनुमानित 25 मिलियन अनपढ़ हैं।
गरीबी
ईरान में 6 से 11 वर्ष की आयु के बच्चों के लिए शिक्षा को अनिवार्य माना जाता है। हालाँकि, ईरान में शिक्षा तक पहुँच एक महत्वपूर्ण बाधा बनी हुई है, विशेष रूप से कम आय वाले परिवारों के छात्रों के लिए।
शिक्षा के लिए मुख्य बाधाओं में से एक गरीबी है, विशेष रूप से ग्रामीण क्षेत्रों में, जहां स्कूलों, योग्य शिक्षकों और परिवहन तक पहुंच सीमित है। पिछले तीन वर्षों में, कम छात्र कॉलेज जा रहे हैं। ईरानी राज्य मीडिया के अनुसार, यह कमी गरीबी, मुफ्त शिक्षा के अभाव और कॉलेज के छात्रों के लिए सरकारी सहायता की कमी के कारण है। कॉलेज के छात्रों की कुल संख्या शैक्षणिक वर्ष 2014-2015 में 4,811,581 से गिरकर शैक्षणिक वर्ष 2017-2018 में 3,616,114 हो गई।
लैंगिक असमानता
इसके अतिरिक्त, ईरान की शिक्षा प्रणाली अभी भी लैंगिक असमानता से जूझ रही है। उच्च शिक्षा में लड़कियों का प्रतिनिधित्व अभी भी कम है, इस तथ्य के बावजूद कि पिछले कुछ दशकों में प्राथमिक और माध्यमिक शिक्षा में उनके नामांकन में नाटकीय रूप से वृद्धि हुई है। विश्व बैंक के अनुसार, ईरान में वयस्क लड़कियों की साक्षरता दर 85% है, जबकि वयस्क लड़कों की साक्षरता दर 92% है। कई परिवार अभी भी अपनी बेटियों की शिक्षा पर जल्दी शादी को प्राथमिकता देते हैं।
इस वजह से, महिला छात्रों को पहली कक्षा से परे शिक्षा प्राप्त करने की इच्छा रखते हुए पर्याप्त बाधाओं का सामना करना पड़ता है, और स्कूलों में लिंग अलगाव आगे की शिक्षा प्राप्त करने की उनकी क्षमता को प्रतिबंधित करता है।
पैसों से जुड़े मुद्दे
ईरान की शिक्षा प्रणाली के लिए एक और खतरा पूंजी की कमी है, जिससे प्रशिक्षित शिक्षकों, अपर्याप्त सुविधाओं और पुराने उपकरणों की कमी हो जाती है।
शिक्षण क्षेत्रों की कमी के साथ कई शैक्षणिक सुविधाएं कम और असुरक्षित हैं। वास्तव में, ईरान के एक तिहाई स्कूल इतने कमजोर हैं कि उन्हें ध्वस्त करके फिर से बनाया जाना चाहिए। तेहरान में नगर परिषद के अध्यक्ष रे और ताजरिश, मोहसेन हाशेमी ने कहा कि “भूकंप की तो बात ही छोड़िए, गंभीर तूफान की स्थिति में तेहरान में 700 स्कूल नष्ट हो जाएंगे।”
शैक्षिक निवेश बढ़ाने के सरकार के प्रयासों के बावजूद, क्षेत्र के अन्य देशों की तुलना में ईरान का शैक्षिक व्यय कम है। विश्व बैंक के अनुसार, 2020 में सकल घरेलू उत्पाद के प्रतिशत के रूप में ईरान का शिक्षा व्यय 3.6% था, जो अन्य उच्च-मध्यम आय वाले देशों में औसत शिक्षा व्यय की तुलना में बहुत कम था।
जबकि ईरानी संविधान में कहा गया है, “सरकार राष्ट्र के सभी सदस्यों के लिए मुफ्त प्राथमिक और उच्च विद्यालय शिक्षा प्रदान करने और सभी के लिए मुफ्त उच्च शिक्षा की सुविधा प्रदान करने के लिए बाध्य है जब तक कि देश आत्मनिर्भर न हो जाए।” इसके विपरीत, रूहानी ने पिछले कुछ वर्षों में ग्रामीण समुदायों के कई स्कूलों को बंद करने और बजट में कटौती करने का आदेश दिया है। अल्लामेह विश्वविद्यालय के एक सहायक प्रोफेसर ने कहा कि ईरान का शिक्षा के लिए धन का प्रतिशत आवंटन संयुक्त राष्ट्र की सिफारिश से बहुत कम है।
इसके अलावा, संसाधनों की कमी के कारण स्कूल प्रणाली तकनीकी सुधारों को जारी नहीं रख सकती है। प्रौद्योगिकी निवेश की कमी ने पुराने उपकरणों और शिक्षक प्रशिक्षण की कमी को जन्म दिया है, जिसने शिक्षा में प्रौद्योगिकी के उपयोग को सीमित कर दिया है और ईरानी छात्रों के डिजिटल कौशल के अधिग्रहण में बाधा उत्पन्न की है।
डिजिटल असमानता
इसके अलावा, डिजिटल असमानता एक ऐसी समस्या है जिसका सामना छात्रों को हाल के वर्षों में करना पड़ा है। 2017 के एक सर्वेक्षण से पता चला है कि 28% ईरानियों के पास इंटरनेट का उपयोग नहीं था या केवल न्यूनतम इंटरनेट का उपयोग था। जबकि इंटरनेट एक्सेस वाले, 80% उपयोगकर्ता शहरों में रहते थे और केवल 20% ग्रामीण क्षेत्रों में रहते थे।
2019 में कोरोनावायरस महामारी के दौरान, जब वायरस के प्रसार को कम करने के लिए ईरान में ऑनलाइन शिक्षा को प्राथमिकता दी गई थी, तो काफी संख्या में छात्रों ने पढ़ाई छोड़ दी थी। यह इंटरनेट कनेक्शन खरीदने में उनकी असमर्थता और उनके क्षेत्र में इंटरनेट की सीमित पहुंच के कारण था।
राजनीतिक हस्तक्षेप
इसके अतिरिक्त, ईरान में शिक्षा प्रणाली सरकार से बहुत प्रभावित है, जिसके परिणामस्वरूप शिक्षा का राजनीतिकरण हुआ है और एक विशिष्ट विचारधारा को बढ़ावा मिला है।
ईरानी सरकार स्कूलों और विश्वविद्यालयों में उपयोग किए जाने वाले पाठ्यक्रम, पाठ्यपुस्तकों और निर्देशात्मक सामग्री को सख्ती से नियंत्रित करती है। स्कूली पाठ्यक्रम को अक्सर सरकार के राजनीतिक और धार्मिक विचारों से जोड़ा जाता है, जो इस्लामी मूल्यों और ईरानी संस्कृति और इतिहास के सरकारी संस्करण को बढ़ावा देने पर जोर देता है।
शिक्षा प्रणाली पर ईरानी सरकार का प्रभाव कक्षा की सामग्री से परे है।
यह शिक्षकों और विश्वविद्यालय के प्रोफेसरों की भर्ती और बर्खास्तगी और प्रशासकों की नियुक्ति को भी प्रभावित करता है। इसके परिणामस्वरूप भेदभावपूर्ण भर्ती प्रथाएं और उन व्यक्तियों का बहिष्कार हो सकता है जो सरकार की विचारधाराओं से मेल नहीं खाते हैं, जिससे शिक्षा प्रणाली के दृष्टिकोण और विचारों की विविधता सीमित हो जाती है। इसके अलावा, ईरानी सरकार शैक्षणिक संस्थानों के भीतर अकादमिक अनुसंधान, प्रकाशनों और गतिविधियों की सक्रिय रूप से निगरानी और नियंत्रण करती है।
विद्वान, शिक्षक और छात्र जो विरोधी दृष्टिकोण व्यक्त करते हैं या सरकार के आख्यानों को कमजोर करने वाली आलोचनात्मक सोच में संलग्न होते हैं, उन्हें प्रतिबंध, धमकी और यहां तक कि उत्पीड़न का सामना करना पड़ता है। यह शिक्षकों और छात्रों के बीच भय और आत्म-सेंसरशिप पैदा करता है, शैक्षणिक स्वतंत्रता को सीमित करता है और विभिन्न विचारों और विचारों को साझा करता है।
नतीजतन, ईरान में शिक्षा की राजनीति छात्रों की आलोचनात्मक रूप से सोचने, सवाल करने और वैकल्पिक दृष्टिकोण पर विचार करने की क्षमता को प्रभावित कर सकती है। यह उनके विभिन्न दृष्टिकोण के संपर्क को सीमित कर सकता है, उनकी शैक्षणिक स्वतंत्रता को सीमित कर सकता है, और आलोचनात्मक सोच क्षमताओं को प्राप्त करने की उनकी क्षमता में बाधा डाल सकता है, जो व्यक्तिगत विकास, सामाजिक प्रगति और एक खुले और समावेशी बौद्धिक वातावरण को बढ़ावा देने के लिए आवश्यक हैं।
प्रतिभा में कमी अंत में, ब्रेन ड्रेन एक और शैक्षिक चुनौती है जिसका ईरान वर्तमान में सामना कर रहा है। कई प्रतिभाशाली और शिक्षित ईरानी बेहतर करियर की संभावनाओं और उच्च वेतन के लिए देश से भाग रहे हैं।
आईएमएफ के अनुसार, जिसने 61 देशों का अध्ययन किया, ईरान में ब्रेन ड्रेन की दर सबसे अधिक है, जिसमें हर साल 150,000 शिक्षित ईरानी अपना मूल देश छोड़ देते हैं। ब्रेन ड्रेन से होने वाला वार्षिक आर्थिक नुकसान 50 अरब डॉलर या उससे अधिक होने का अनुमान है।
यह ब्रेन ड्रेन देश को उसके प्रतिभाशाली दिमागों से वंचित करता है, जिससे देश की आर्थिक विकास और प्रगति की क्षमता कम हो जाती है। इन चुनौतियों से निपटने के लिए शिक्षा प्रणाली में महत्वपूर्ण सुधारों और निवेश की आवश्यकता है।
ईरानी सरकार को स्कूलों और विश्वविद्यालयों में वित्त पोषण को बढ़ावा देकर, योग्य शिक्षकों को काम पर रखकर और प्रशिक्षित करके और आलोचनात्मक सोच, समस्या-समाधान और रचनात्मकता पर जोर देने के लिए पाठ्यक्रम को उन्नत करके शिक्षा को प्राथमिकता देनी चाहिए। इसके अलावा, सरकार को विशेष रूप से ग्रामीण क्षेत्रों में महिला छात्रों द्वारा अनुभव की जाने वाली शैक्षिक चुनौतियों का समाधान करना चाहिए और शिक्षा में लैंगिक समानता को बढ़ावा देना चाहिए।
निष्कर्ष
ईरान की शिक्षा प्रणाली के विकास के लिए प्रौद्योगिकी में निवेश भी आवश्यक है। सरकार को स्कूलों और संस्थानों को नवीनतम तकनीक प्रदान करनी चाहिए और कक्षा में सफलतापूर्वक इसका उपयोग करने के लिए शिक्षकों को प्रशिक्षित करने में निवेश करना चाहिए। इससे न केवल छात्रों को डिजिटल क्षमताओं का निर्माण करने में मदद मिलेगी, बल्कि यह उन्हें इक्कीसवीं सदी के श्रम बाजार की मांगों के लिए भी तैयार करेगा। ऐसा करके, ईरान इन चुनौतियों को पार कर सकता है और एक अधिक समृद्ध और सफल भविष्य का निर्माण कर सकता है।
الصعوبات التعليمية التي يواجهها الأطفال اللاجئون في ترك
Written by Caren Thomas
اللاجئون هم أولئك الذين لديهم خوف مبرر من التعرض للاضطهاد لأسباب تتعلق بالعرق أو الدين أو الجنسية أو الانتماء إلى مجموعة اجتماعية معينة أو الرأي السياسي. إن تجربة مثل هذه المخاوف في مرحلة الطفولة المبكرة سيكون لها تأثير خطير على التطور المعرفي والاجتماعي والعاطفي والجسدي للطفل.
كما تنص اتفاقية الأمم المتحدة لحقوق الطفل،يتمتع الأطفال بحقوق معينة. وتشمل هذه الحقوق مبادئ الحماية من الأذى، وتوفير الاحتياجات الأساسية، والاعتراف بالأطفال ومشاركتهم كأصحاب حقوق.
من خلال لائحة الحماية المؤقتة التي صدرت عام 2014، يتمتع اللاجئون السوريون بحمايات لحقوق محددة، و منها التعليم والمأوى والغذاء والمياه والإسكان وآليات الضمان الاجتماعي وسوق العمل.
ومن خلال خطة العمل المشتركة بين الاتحاد الأوروبي وتركيا لعام 2015، يهدف الجانبان إلى تعزيز الفرص التعليمية على كافة المستويات والالتزام بمساعدة الدولة المضيفة (تركيا)، وخاصة في جوانب مثل البنية التحتية والخدمات المختلفة.
في عام 2018، حدد الميثاق العالمي بشأن اللاجئين هدفاً يتمثل في أن تكون الحكومات في وضع يسمح لها بإدراج الأطفال والشباب اللاجئين في أنظمة التعليم الوطنية في غضون فترة زمنية مدتها ثلاثة أشهر من تاريخ النزوح.
تسبب الزلزال الذي وقع في فبراير/شباط 2023 في معاناة إضافية للاجئين وغيرهم من الأطفال النازحين في تركيا، مما أثر بشكل خاص على حصولهم على التعليم.
التعليم حق أساسي لكل لاجئ وطالب لجوء. تواجه تركيا تدفقًا كبيرًا من طالبي اللجوء كما تستضيف أيضًا عددًا كبيرًا من اللاجئين، أغلبهم من السوريين. لكن للاسف هؤلاء الأطفال اللاجئين غير قادرين على الوصول إلى التعليم بسبب ظروفهم. إن الإطار التعليمي الحالي للاجئين في تركيا مثقل بالعديد من الصعوبات والعقبات.
يلتحق العديد من اللاجئين السوريين بالمدارس التركية بعد حصولهم على وثيقة هوية الحماية الدولية التي تحمل رقم تعريف الأجنبي. ينطبق الإعفاء من الرسوم الدراسية الذي أعلن عنه مجلس الوزراء على الطلاب القادمين من سوريا فقط. و يتم تقديم دروس اللغة التركية في مراكز التعليم العام مجاناً.ولتحقيق هذه الغاية، يلزم تقديم وثيقة هوية الحماية الدولية. ومع ذلك، في حالة عدم وجود عدد كاف من الأشخاص المسجلين، فقد لا تبدأ هذه الفصول في تاريخ التسجيل المطلوب
يحق للأفراد القادمين من سوريا التسجيل في مراكز التعليم المؤقتة، في حين يُسمح للاجئين وطالبي اللجوء من دول مختلفة بالتسجيل في المدارس العامة التركية حصراً. المراكز التعليمية المؤقتة هي المدارس التي تقدم الخدمات التعليمية للأشخاص القادمين إلى تركيا لفترة مؤقتة. كان يعمل في هذه المراكز في البداية متطوعين سوريين قامت اليونيسف وغيرها من المنظمات غير الحكومية بتعويضهم مالياً.وفقًا لوزارة التربية الوطنية، كانت نسبة كبيرة من الأطفال اللاجئين خارج المدارس في عام 2019. ومع ذلك، حدث انخفاض كبير في عدد الأطفال الذين لم يلتحقوا بالمدارس منذ السنوات الأولى لأزمة اللاجئين السوريين. واعتباراً من عام 2017، اتخذت السلطات التركية تدابير لدمج اللاجئين السوريين في نظام التعليم العام في البلاد.
يمثل انعدام الجنسية بين السكان السوريين المقيمين في تركيا قضية ملحوظة. لا تزال التحديات قائمة بسبب عوامل مثل عدم وجود وثائق مدنية مناسبة، وصعوبات الحصول على شهادات الميلاد في تركيا، وأنظمة الجنسية السورية. والجدير بالذكر أن الجنسية السورية لا يمكن أن يرثها الطفل من والدته إلا إذا حدثت الولادة داخل الحدود السورية.
أما داخل تركيا، إذا كانت علاقة الأم بأب سوري أو تركي غير مؤكدة أو غير واضحة ، فإن الطفل يواجه خطر انعدام الجنسية ويؤدي عدم حصولهم على الجنسية التركية أو الإقامة الدائمة إلى أن يصبحوا ضيوفاً داخل البلاد وعدم اندماجهم في المجتمع التركي.
على الرغم من أن تركيا من الدول الموقعة على اتفاقية الأمم المتحدة للاجئين، إلا أنها قدمت طلباً لتحديد جغرافي. وبالتالي، فإن أشخاص مثل السوريين والقادمين من مختلف الدول الأخرى غير مؤهلين للحصول على وضع اللاجئ الكامل في تركيا. وبدلاً من ذلك، يتم تسجيلهم بموجب نظام الحماية المؤقتة.
تسمح لائحة الحماية المؤقتة للاجئين بالحصول على الموارد الأساسية مثل الرعاية الصحية والتعليم. وبمجرد تسجيل اللاجئين بموجب لائحة الحماية المؤقتة، يتوجب عليهم البقاء داخل تلك المقاطعة.
تنشأ مشاكل إضافية نتيجة لعدم الاعتراف بوضع الحماية المؤقتة والدولية في 16 مقاطعة في جميع أنحاء تركيا. ولا يزال انخفاض عدد السكان الأجانب بنسبة 25٪ إلى 20٪ من السكان الأجانب داخل حي معين يسبب مشاكل كبيرة. يصبح العثور على وظائف أمراً صعباً لأن الفرد يضطر إلى البحث عن وظائف في المنطقة المسجل فيها الفرد فقط، مما يحد من فرص العمل التي قد تكون متاحة له في أماكن أخرى، مثل إسطنبول.
من الأمور الشائعة عالميًا أنه خلال أوقات الأزمات، غالبًا ما يكون قطاع التعليم أول من يتوقف عن العمل وآخر من يعود إلى العمل. من الضروري إمكانية الحصول على التعليم بغض النظر عما إذا كان الشخص طالبًا للحماية الدولية أو حاملًا للحماية الدولية أو إذا كان يخطط لإعادة التوطين في بلد آخر أو العودة إلى بلده. هو يساعد الأطفال على تنمية مهاراتهم واستقرارهم ودمجهم اجتماعياً وأكاديمياً في النظام التعليمي.
العوائق اللغوية
وفي إحدى الدراسات التي أجريت، تبين أن المشكلة الرئيسية هي مشكلة اللغة. حيث لم يستطع المعلمون الذين تم توظيفهم تحدث اللغة العربية، ولم يستطع الأطفال تحدث اللغة التركية. لم يكن هناك أنشطة يتم تنفيذها داخل الفصول الدراسية لتسهيل تعليم الأطفال و لم يوجد مواد متنوعة يتم إحضارها للمساعدة في فهم الأمور. يجب تزويد المعلمين بالتدريب المهني لتسهيل عملية التعلم للأطفال اللاجئين بشكل أفضل من خلال استراتيجيات التدريس والوسائل التعليمية.
لا يملك المعلمون وعي كافٍ بهؤلاء الأطفال اللاجئين ليس فقط من الناحية التعليمية ولكن أيضًا على المستوى النفسي. حيث قد تعرض غالبية هؤلاء الطلاب لاضطراب ما بعد الصدمة، ويرجع ذلك في المقام الأول إلى الظروف التي أتوا منها.
إن حاجز التواصل الذي يواجهه الأطفال يزيد من تعقيد هذه القضية في مجال التعليم. فعندما يوضع الأطفال اللاجئون مع طلاب آخرين يستطيعون التحدث باللغة التركية، فإنهم غالباً ما يتعرضون للسخرية، ويفتقرون إلى الثقة، ويتعرضون للعزلة بسبب حاجز اللغة.
Syrian children and youngsters attending informal education and integration courses at Relief International communıty centre. Photo by: EU/ECHO/Abdurrahman Antakyali , Gaziantep.
الخلفية العائلية والصدمات النفسية
في تحليل جندري أجري في عام 2019 لدراسة رحلة اللاجئين السوريين مع التركيز على الصعوبات التي يواجهها اللاجئون في تركيا، تبين أن جزءًا كبيرًا من الأطفال السوريين اللاجئين لم يلتحقوا بالمدارس. ومن بين أولئك الذين كانوا في المدرسة، كانت هناك مستويات مرتفعة من الصدمات النفسية. مما أدى إلى إعاقة التقدم التعليمي لهؤلاء الأطفال بشكل كبير.
لم يتم إرسال الأطفال في البداية إلى المدارس لأن الآباء شعروا أن إقامتهم في البلد الذي طلبوا اللجوء إليه ستكون مؤقتة. ومع ذلك، بمجرد أن أدركت العائلات دوام إقامتهم في تركيا، ازداد معدل التحاق الأطفال اللاجئين بالمدارس بشكل مستمر.
وقد أظهرت الأبحاث باستمرار الآثار الإيجابية للتعليم على الأطفال الذين يعانون من الإجهاد النفسي عقب الصدمة وتطوير مهارات التأقلم والمرونة. وقد يكون ذلك مفيداً وفعالاً بشكل خاص للأطفال اللاجئين على المدى الطويل.
ومع ذلك، وعلى الرغم من الأثر الإيجابي للتعليم، إلا أنه يأتي مع بعض التعقيدات. فالبيئة المنزلية غير المستقرة أو غير الداعمة تعيق العملية التعليمية السلسة لهؤلاء الأطفال وتؤثر على جودة التعليم.
عادة ما تجد العائلات اللاجئة نفسها وقد فقدت كل ما لديها. وهذا، إلى جانب الضغط المالي، يجبر أطفالهم على الزواج المبكر، مما يدفعهم إلى ترك المدرسة. وتجدر الإشارة إلى أنه في عام 2020 كان هناك انخفاض في عدد الأولاد الملتحقين بالمدارس. وقد لوحظ أن أسبابًا مثل إرسال الأطفال إلى العمل بسبب زيادة المصاعب الاقتصادية كانت أحد أسباب انسحاب الأولاد من المدارس.
تراجع الخدمات
لا تستثني الكوارث الطبيعية والأوبئة والحروب الأطفال. فقد اجتاحت تركيا في أعقاب جائحة كوفيد-19 وزلزال فبراير/شباط 2023. فغالباً ما يتعرض الأطفال اللاجئون للفقر والظروف المعيشية السيئة والحد الأدنى من إمكانية الحصول على مياه الشرب المأمونة والرعاية الصحية والغذاء، فضلاً عن اضطرارهم للعمل بسبب الظروف الاقتصادية غير المواتية التي تواجهها الأسرة، مما يؤدي إلى إهمال الأطفال لتعليمهم. واعتبرت التحويلات النقدية المشروطة لتعليم السوريين وغيرهم من اللاجئين وتعزيز دمج الأطفال السوريين في التعليم التركي من الطرق لمعالجة العوائق الاقتصادية التي تحول دون الالتحاق بالمدارس والحضور.
لقد وقع هؤلاء الأطفال ضحايا لتجارب مؤلمة في سن مبكرة، مثل إصابة وموت أقربائهم وأعزائهم. وبسبب البيئة غير المستقرة، يؤدي ذلك إلى تأخير حصولهم على التعليم. وقد ينتهي الأمر بهؤلاء الأطفال إلى تلقي التعليم في مرافق تعليمية غير ملائمة، مما يعيق قدرتهم على استيعاب كامل إمكانياتهم وإطلاق العنان لها.
العنصرية وكراهية الأجانب
وقد شهدت حالات الاعتداءات العنصرية والمعادية للأجانب ارتفاعًا كبيرًا أيضًا. وقد تفاقم هذا الأمر من قبل العديد من السياسيين داخل البلاد. ويستمر هذا الأمر في تعريض اللاجئين القادمين من سوريا وغيرها من الأماكن الأخرى للخطر المستمر في المدارس والمنازل وأماكن العمل. ومع الأخذ بعين الاعتبار الواجب الذي يقع على عاتق تركيا تجاه لاجئيها، خاصة وأنها من الدول الموقعة على اتفاقية الأمم المتحدة للاجئين، يجب على السياسيين وأعضاء الحكومة وصناع القرار وغيرهم من الأشخاص المؤثرين بذل جهد كبير لعدم التحريض على معاداة اللاجئين داخل البلاد.
يحتاج المعلمون وغيرهم من الأشخاص ذوي الخبرة إلى بذل جهد واضح لتوعية أطفال الدولة المضيفة بأن التمييز والعنصرية والتنمر وغيرها من الأفعال المماثلة سلوك غير مقبول. كما يجب أيضًا توعية مواطني أو أولياء أمور الطلاب في الدولة المضيفة لوضع حد للمعاملة التمييزية تجاه هؤلاء الأطفال اللاجئين وتعليم أطفالهم أن يكونوا محترمين تجاه أقرانهم. ومن شأن المهارات اللغوية الأساسية بين الأطفال اللاجئين أن تتيح لكلا الطرفين مستوى أساسي من التفاعل. وإذا لم يكن الأمر كذلك، سيستمر اللاجئون في مواجهة المشكلة الملحوظة المتمثلة في الإقصاء والتهميش.
يجب على الدولة المضيفة أن تسعى جاهدة لفهم التحديات التي يواجهها اللاجئون في البيئة التعليمية، والتي تشمل قضايا مثل التنمر والعنصرية والعوائق اللغوية والمخاوف المماثلة. حيث تؤثر هذه العوامل على ضرورة إقامة الروابط وتعزيز الشعور بالانتماء.
Hatay, Turkey, 9 February 2023. Members of the UK’s International Search & Rescue Team continue working in coordination with other search and rescue teams looking for survivors. Photo by UK ISAR Team
زلزال فبراير/شباط 2023
أدى الزلزال الذي أصاب البلاد في فبراير/شباط 2023 إلى تفاقم التحديات التي يواجهها اللاجئون. فالموارد الأساسية، مثل التعليم، أصبحت الآن غير متاحة للأطفال. يتم إعادة استخدام العديد من المدارس كملاجئ للمتضررين من الزلزال.
تمكّنت اليونيسف من مساعدة 140,000 طفل في الحصول على التعليم الرسمي وغير الرسمي، ووفرت لأكثر من 260,000 طفل إمكانية الحصول على خدمات الصحة النفسية والدعم النفسي والاجتماعي. وقد لعبت اليونيسف ومنظمة AFAD دورًا فعالاً في مساعدة وزارة التربية الوطنية من خلال تدابير تعليمية مؤقتة مثل الخيام لصفوف الاستدراك والتحضير للامتحانات. لكن حتى اليونيسف تدرك الحاجة إلى دعم طويل الأجل لإعادة بناء واستعادة حياة هؤلاء الأطفال وأسرهم.
من الشائع أن يتم تجاهل التعليم، وخاصة بالنسبة للفئات الضعيفة، وإعطائه أولوية أدنى. وقد يدفع هذا الوضع هؤلاء الأطفال الضعفاء إلى الانخراط في عمالة الأطفال كوسيلة لدعم أنفسهم أو أسرهم خلال هذه الظروف الصعبة. ومن المحتمل أن يدفع هذا الوضع هؤلاء الأطفال الضعفاء إلى الانخراط في عمالة الأطفال كوسيلة لإعالة أنفسهم أو أسرهم في هذه الظروف الصعبة. ازدياد التحيز والإفقار بين اللاجئين السوريين، بالإضافة إلى محدودية فرص الحصول على التعليم، يجد اللاجئون السوريون أنفسهم مضطرين للعمل لمجرد الحفاظ على سبل عيشهم.
الخاتمة
يجب على البلد المضيف بذل الجهود لضمان اندماج الأطفال النازحين، بغض النظر عن تصنيفهم المحدد كلاجئين أو نازحين داخلياً أو طالبي لجوء أو قاصرين غير مصحوبين بذويهم، في نظام التعليم المحلي في مناطق إقامتهم.
وبالنظر إلى التدفق الهائل للهجرة التي تستقبلها تركيا بسبب الأزمات الإنسانية العالمية، سيكون من الحكمة أن تتخذ تركيا مبادرة فعالة ليس فقط في صنع السياسات ولكن في تنفيذها فيما يتعلق بالوضع التعليمي للأطفال النازحين المذكورين.
يجب على الشركاء داخل البلد وكذلك على الصعيد الدولي تقديم المساعدة للسلطات التركية من خلال تزويدها بالدعم المطلوب في شكل مساعدات مالية ومساعدة فنية وخبرة من حيث المعلمين الذين يتمتعون بالموهبة في التحدث باللغات ذات الصلة والمعرفة بالموضوعات ذات الصلة والقدرة على تلبية مختلف أنواع الصعوبات التي تأتي مع تعليم الأطفال القادمين من بيئات متقلبة.
من المهم الاعتراف بأن المعلم المكلف بتعليم الأطفال اللاجئين، إلى جانب الأطفال النازحين داخلياً أو طالبي اللجوء أو القاصرين غير المصحوبين بذويهم، يقوم بتعليم مجموعة تواجه تحديات تتجاوز ما يواجهه عادةً في الفصول الدراسية العادية.
قد يكون هؤلاء الأطفال يعانون من إعاقات منذ الولادة أو بسبب العنف في بلدانهم، أو شهدوا مقتل أو إصابة أفراد من أسرهم وأصدقائهم، أو حتى وقعوا ضحايا للعنف الجنسي. ومن المحتمل جدًا أن يكون تعليمهم قد تعطل قبل وصولهم إلى البلد المضيف بفترة طويلة. نتيجة لذلك، لا يحتاج المعلمون في هذه السياقات إلى امتلاك مهارات تدريس قوية فحسب، بل يحتاجون أيضًا إلى فهم عميق لبيئتهم الصفية وحساسية تجاه المواقف الفريدة التي يواجهونها. وهذا تحدٍ صعب.
كما يجب على البلد المضيف والشركاء الآخرين الذين يساعدون البلد المضيف أن يضعوا هذه الحقيقة في اعتبارهم أثناء توظيف المعلمين وغيرهم من الأشخاص ذوي الخبرة. إن التعليم، وخاصة بالنسبة للاجئين، مفيد بشكل استثنائي لإعادة الهيكلة الاجتماعية والتنمية الاجتماعية والاقتصادية.
ونظراً لأن إمكانية تطبيق الاتفاق التركي لا تزال قيد التقييم المستمر، لا سيما بالنظر إلى الصعوبات التي تواجهها تركيا، فإن تنفيذه سيساهم بشكل ملحوظ في دعم تركيا وتعزيز اقتصاد البلاد. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، سيساعد اللاجئين في تحقيق قدر أكبر من الاكتفاء الذاتي وتقليل اعتمادهم على تمويل المساعدات الإنسانية.
إن اعتماد نظام تصديق معترف به عالميًا لهؤلاء الأطفال من شأنه أن يعزز من سهولة الانتقال التعليمي، في حال حدوثه. ومن شأن هذا النظام أن يسهل الالتحاق والحضور والاستبقاء والتقدم وإكمال الدراسة، مما يعزز تعليماً أكثر شمولاً وإنصافاً وجودة عالية للأطفال والشباب اللاجئين على حد سواء.
التجاهل والتخويف والرفض والتمييز هي كلمات شائعة تستخدم لوصف تجربة الأطفال اللاجئين في المدارس. لقد حان الوقت لتغيير هذا الوصف وهذه المحنة. يجب على تركيا أن تفي بالتزاماتها التعاهدية بموجب اتفاقية اللاجئين لعام 1951 والعهد الدولي الخاص بالحقوق المدنية والسياسية واتفاقية مناهضة التعذيب، وأن تستمر في التمسك بمبدأ عدم الإعادة القسرية. إن ضمان التعليم يوفر منبراً قوياً للأطفال من أجل تشجيعهم وإثراء مستقبلهم. إنها مسؤولية هائلة يجب أن تتحملها الجهات الفاعلة الحكومية وغير الحكومية على المستوى المحلي والوطني والدولي لمضاعفة الجهود المبذولة لضمان توفير بيئة آمنة لهؤلاء الأطفال.
المراجع:
Diamond, M., & Oberg, C. (2019).التحديات المتعلقة بالجنس في التدخلات التعليمية مع الآباء اللاجئين السوريين لأطفال متأثرين بالصدمات في تركيا. مجلة Children (بازل، سويسرا)، 6(10)،
Het overbruggen van de onderwijskloof: Onthulling van de ongelijkheid tussen stad en platteland in Suriname en de noodzaak van inclusieve hervorming
Introductie:
Het recht op onderwijs is een fundamenteel mensenrecht, vastgelegd in internationale verdragen en erkend als een hoeksteen van persoonlijke en maatschappelijke ontwikkeling. In 2015 nam de VN het initiatief voor de Duurzame Ontwikkelingsdoelen (SDG’s) aan als een universele oproep voor wereldwijde economische en menselijke ontwikkeling tegen 2030.Kwaliteitsonderwijs staat op nummer 4 in de lijst van SDG’s, met doelen die genderongelijkheid, analfabetisme en onbetaalbaar onderwijs willen uitbannen. Dit artikel gaat over de onderwijsuitdagingen van Suriname, een land dat in het noordoostelijke puntje van het Zuid-Amerikaanse continent ligt, met een rijke geschiedenis en een levendige cultuur. Hoewel Suriname de Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Agenda heeft ondertekend, staat de Zuid-Amerikaanse staat als een testament voor de voortdurende strijd voor mensenrechten, in het bijzonder het recht op onderwijs. Als we kijken naar het Surinaamse onderwijssysteem, dan zien we dat dit recht voor veel etnische groepen in de Surinaamse samenleving ongrijpbaar blijft, met name voor gemarginaliseerde groepen die worstelen met het ingewikkelde web van politieke, sociale en economische uitdagingen die een schaduw werpen op hun onderwijsaspiraties en de toegang tot dergelijke kansen beperken.
Zowel de kwaliteit als de kwantiteit van het onderwijs hangt af van de capaciteit van de staat om openbare diensten te verlenen aan zijn bevolking. Om dergelijke uitdagingen in het onderwijs aan te pakken, is het essentieel dat we kijken naar de Surinaamse staatsinstellingen, de etnische tegenstellingen en de capaciteit van de staat om openbare diensten te verlenen aan haar bevolking. Een sterke staatscapaciteit is cruciaal voor de verstrekking van onderwijs, aangezien de kwaliteit van het onderwijs vaak een weerspiegeling is van het vermogen van de staat om het monopolie op het gebruik van geweld te garanderen. Dit monopolie is essentieel voor het handhaven van orde en stabiliteit op het grondgebied van de staat en schept een omgeving die bevorderlijk is voor het oprichten en in stand houden van onderwijsinstellingen. Bovendien stelt de jurisdictie over het grondgebied de staat in staat om onderwijsbeleid effectief te implementeren en te handhaven. Als de staat zijn apparaat uitbreidt, neemt het onvermijdelijk afgelegen gebieden op in zijn territorium, wat belangrijk is voor onderwijsvoorzieningen. Door deze integratie worden niet alleen het bereik van het onderwijsbeleid en de onderwijsmiddelen uitgebreid naar deze voorheen gemarginaliseerde regio’s, maar worden ze ook geïntegreerd in het bredere sociaaleconomische kader van de staat. De uitbreiding en versterking van de staatscapaciteit spelen dus een cruciale rol in de verbetering van de kwaliteit en toegankelijkheid van het onderwijs op het hele grondgebied en dragen zo bij aan de algemene ontwikkeling en welvaart van de natie. Daarnaast heeft de beoordeling van de staatscapaciteit van een land te maken met de beperkingen van de jurisdictie binnen de eigen bevolking, of het land de capaciteit heeft om bepaalde steden en gemeenschappen efficiënter te reguleren.
1.1. Het probleem
Volgens een rapport van UNESCO uit 2020 heeft Suriname te kampen met een onderwijssysteem dat wordt gekenmerkt door veel schooluitval en herhalingen, met lage slagingspercentages van het basisonderwijs naar het voortgezet onderwijs (een gemiddelde dat schommelt tussen de 50 en 60%). Bovendien wordt het onderwijs in Suriname ook gekenmerkt door grote verschillen tussen stedelijke en plattelandsgebieden.
Volgens een rapport uit 2007 van het VN-Comité voor de Rechten van het Kind (CRC) bestaan er grote verschillen in de verstrekking en kwaliteit van onderwijs tussen de kustgebieden en het binnenland, waar een groot aantal basisscholen wordt geleid door leerkrachten met een beperkte opleiding. Suriname is verdeeld in drie verschillende gebieden: het platteland, de stad en het binnenland. De regering zetelt in de hoofdstad Paramaribo (stedelijk), waar ook de meerderheid van de bevolking is gevestigd. De landelijke gebieden vormen het noordelijke kustgebied, dat de districten Coronie, Nickerie, Commewijne en Saramacca omvat. Het ‘binnenland’ ten slotte wordt weerhouden voor het dunbevolkte en met bos bedekte achterland dat een deel van het Amazonegebied beslaat en zich uitstrekt tot aan de zuidelijke grens met Brazilië.
Afgelegenheid is een belangrijke factor voor onderwijsongelijkheid in Suriname, naast de diverse etnische samenstelling, geslacht, opsluiting en armoede. Etnische samenstelling en afgelegenheid zijn indirect gecorreleerd en zouden kunnen wijzen op de zwakke capaciteit van de Surinaamse staat om publieke diensten te leveren. Dit artikel gaat in op de vraag hoe zowel de afgelegenheid als de etnische diversiteit de belangrijkste obstakels zijn voor de staat om zijn capaciteit om onderwijs als openbare dienst te verlenen, te vergroten.
2. Capaciteit en instellingen van de staat
2.2. Toewijdingen aan onderwijs
Suriname heeft een groot aantal internationale en regionale mensenrechtenprocedures geratificeerd, die de staat verschillende verantwoordelijkheden geven om het onderwijs aan inheemse en in stamverband levende volken te waarborgen. Dergelijke procedures omvatten het Internationaal Verdrag inzake de Rechten van het Kind (IVRK), het Internationaal Verdrag inzake de Eliminatie van alle Vormen van Rassendiscriminatie (ICERD) en de VN Verklaring inzake de Rechten van Inheemse Volken (UNDRIP). Deze multilaterale instrumenten ondersteunen de rechten van inheemse en in stamverband levende volken om (1) toegang te hebben tot kwaliteitsonderwijs zonder enige vorm van discriminatie, en (2) hun instellingen en onderwijssystemen op te zetten, onderwijs aan te bieden in hun eigen talen, op een manier die past bij hun culturele onderwijs- en leermethodes.
De bindende staat moet deze rechten naleven en maatregelen nemen ‘in samenwerking met inheemse volkeren, opdat inheemse individuen, in het bijzonder kinderen, met inbegrip van degenen die buiten hun gemeenschappen leven, toegang hebben tot onderwijs in hun eigen cultuur, verstrekt in hun eigen taal’. Suriname is ook gebonden aan aanvullende regionale instrumenten, zoals de Organisatie van Amerikaanse Staten (OAS) en de Caribische Gemeenschap (CARICOM), die de staat verplicht zich te committeren aan (1) het verminderen van verschillen in onderwijs tussen inheemse en niet-inheemse volken, en (2) alle Caribische volken kansen te bieden voor constructief leren en persoonlijke groei in kennis, vaardigheden en attitudes vanaf de eerste levensjaren, van het schoolsysteem tot op de werkplek.
2.2. Overheidsbeleid
De grondwet van Suriname, opgesteld in 1992, garandeert het recht op verplicht, gratis en gelijk onderwijs. Daarnaast stelt de grondwet expliciet dat het tot haar plicht behoort om analfabetisme uit te roeien en alle burgers in staat te stellen het hoogste onderwijsniveau te bereiken. Met het oog op de diverse etnolinguïstische demografie van Suriname heeft de regering een ontwikkelingsplan ontwikkeld voor de periode 2017-2021 met als doel een onderwijssysteem dat de multi-etnische, multiculturele en meertalige Surinaamse samenleving weerspiegelt. Het plan wijdt het ontwerpen van programma’s aan het toegankelijker maken van onderwijs voor alle segmenten van de samenleving, inclusief jonge en oudere burgers. Het belangrijkste is dat het plan het gebrek aan kwaliteitsonderwijs in de “binnenlandregio” herkent en expliciet uitdagingen noemt zoals het “gebrek aan volledig gecertificeerde, ontoereikende fysieke infrastructuur, de taalbarrière, de afstand van huis naar school en het gebrek aan goed en veilig drinkwater en continuïteit van de elektriciteit”.
Het Ministerie van Onderwijs heeft een uitgebreid ‘Implementatieplan voor Onderwijs in het Binnenland’ opgesteld voor de periode tussen 2008 en 2015. Het plan probeert de bouw en het herstel van klaslokalen en scholen te ondersteunen, het percentage huishoudens dat Nederlands spreekt te verhogen en het aantal gekwalificeerde leraren te verhogen. In 2012 maakte de president van Suriname, Bouterse, echter een einde aan het speciale onderwijsbeleid voor het binnenland, met het argument dat het niet nodig was om een apart beleid te hebben voor het onderwijs in het district.
3. Opleidingsniveau tussen stedelijk gebied en binnenland
De ongelijkheid in onderwijs bestaat tussen de binnenlandse gebieden, met name het district Sipaliwini, en de stedelijke gebieden, waar de eerstgenoemden vaker lessen overdoen, de school eerder verlaten en aanzienlijk lager scoren op de gestandaardiseerde toetsen dan hun leeftijdsgenoten in de stedelijke gebieden. Bovendien voltooien kinderen in het district Sipaliwini het basisonderwijs veel later dan hun leeftijdsgenoten in de stedelijke gebieden: in 2008 voltooide 1,2% van de inheemse en marron kinderen de basisschool voor de leeftijd van 12 jaar, in tegenstelling tot 24% van de stedelijke kinderen. Van 1986 tot 1992 was het “binnenland” van Suriname getuige van een gewapend conflict dat resulteerde in de vernietiging van de belangrijkste infrastructuur in het gebied, waaronder bruggen, wegen, scholen en woningen. De regering van Suriname (2003) heeft een rapport ingediend bij het VN-Comité voor de uitbanning van rassendiscriminatie, waarin zij erkent dat het onderwijs in het binnenland is verlaten, leerlingen lange afstanden moeten afleggen en er onvoldoende huisvesting is voor leraren. Aangezien Nederlands de hoofdtaal is, wordt het onderwijs volledig in deze taal gegeven, met boeken en andere materialen volledig in het Nederlands. Kinderen in de binnenlanden van Sipaliwini spreken thuis echter hun eigen stamtaal.
3.1. Scholen
In het binnenland zijn ook niet voldoende middelbare scholen: 2 van de 59 openbare middelbare scholen bevinden zich in Sipaliwini en er zijn geen middelbare scholen. Door het gebrek aan middelbare scholen gaan de meeste leerlingen uit de Sipaliwini naar de middelbare school in Paramaribo, de hoofdstad, wat erg duur kan zijn voor hun ouders, die moeten betalen voor materiaal, uniformen en kostschool. In een interview met UNESCO (2020) stelt Loreen Jubitana, directeur van de Vereniging van Inheemse Dorpshoofden in Suriname, dat kinderen een cultuurshock ervaren wanneer ze voor school naar de stad verhuizen, en dat dit de belangrijkste oorzaak is van schooluitval. Verder verslechteren de omstandigheden van scholen in Sipaliwini, met een gebrek aan toegang tot drinkwater en weinig elektriciteit.
3.2. Docenten
Een ander belangrijk verschil tussen afgelegen en stedelijke gebieden is het gebrek aan gekwalificeerde leraren. Er zijn vier opleidingsinstituten in Suriname, maar geen daarvan bevindt zich in het binnenland. Ook al wordt er van de pas afgestudeerde leraren verwacht dat ze 5 jaar lesgeven in het binnenland voordat ze een baan krijgen in de hoofdstad, ze zijn niet bereid om naar het binnenland te gaan vanwege het gebrek aan elektriciteit en drinkbaar water. Het gebrek aan adequate infrastructuur binnen scholen, huisvesting, transport en logistiek vermindert de stimulans voor gekwalificeerde leraren om in het binnenland te gaan wonen.
4. Conclusie:
Zowel inheemse volken als marrongroepen hebben hun eigen bestuursvormen behouden en zijn formeel zo erkend dat de stamhoofden een maandelijkse toelage van de overheid ontvangen. Hoewel ze cultureel van elkaar verschillen, delen inheemse en marron gemeenschappen een sterke sociaaleconomische en spirituele band met de natuurlijke omgeving. Ondanks de voortdurende moderniseringsprocessen zijn beide groepen, met name de groepen die verder van de stedelijke centra afliggen, nog steeds grotendeels afhankelijk van het bos voor hun levensonderhoud (jagen, vissen en rotatielandbouw); huisvesting, vervoer in de vorm van boomstamkano’s en gezondheidszorg, waarbij medicinale planten worden gebruikt voor een reeks remedies.
De overheid van Suriname moet haar onderwijssysteem hervormen om meer inclusief te worden voor haar diverse bevolking. Om een meer inclusief onderwijssysteem te introduceren, moet de staat de lokale overheden van het binnenland machtigen, waardoor tegelijkertijd haar capaciteit om andere openbare diensten te leveren, zal toenemen. Het versterken van lokale overheden is cruciaal voor het verzamelen van gegevens en het openen van communicatiekanalen tussen lokale overheden aan de basis en de centrale overheid.
De Surinaamse overheid moet haar monopolie op het gebruik van geweld vergroten, simpelweg door haar capaciteit om haar grondgebied te reguleren te vergroten en communicatiekanalen met de inheemse bevolking te openen. Daartoe moet de regering compromissen sluiten om te voorkomen dat er polarisatie ontstaat tussen het binnenland en de stedelijke gebieden van het land. Er moeten concessies in de vorm van politieke vertegenwoordiging worden gedaan aan de inheemse volkeren van Suriname. Tenslotte moet de regering stimulansen ontwerpen voor leraren die in het binnenland werken, naast de investering in de ontwikkeling van lokaal gevestigde leraren. Er moeten publieke voorzieningen komen, waaronder huisvesting, gezondheidszorg en voorzieningen.
Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2019). The Narrow Corridor: States, Societies, and the Fate of Liberty. Penguin Press. ISBN (paperback) 9780735224407; ISBN (e-book) 9780735224391
Weber, M. (1919). “Politics as a Vocation.” In H. H. Gerth & C. Wright Mills (Trans. & Eds.), From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (pp. 77-128). Oxford University Press.
Iran has a rich cultural heritage and a long history of educational excellence, dating back to ancient times when it was known as Persia. However, the country is currently confronted with various issues in the education sector that jeopardise its ability to provide high-quality education to its citizens.
Around 7 million children lack access to education, and an estimated 25 million illiterates are in Iran.
Poverty
Education is considered compulsory in Iran for children aged 6 to 11. However, access to education remains a significant barrier in Iran, particularly for pupils from low-income families.
One of the main barriers to education is poverty, particularly in rural areas, where access to schools, qualified teachers, and transportation is limited.
Over the past three years, fewer students have been attending college. According to Iranian state media, this decrease is due to poverty, the absence of free education, and the lack of government support for college students. The total number of college students fell from 4,811,581 in the academic year 2014–2015 to 3,616,114 in the academic year 2017–2018.
Gender inequality
Additionally, Iran’s educational system still struggles with gender inequality. Girls are still underrepresented in higher education, despite the fact that their enrolment in primary and secondary education has increased dramatically over the previous few decades.
According to the World Bank, the literacy rate for adult girls in Iran is 85%, compared to 92% for adult boys. Many families still prioritise early marriage over their daughters’ education.
Because of this, female students encounter substantial obstacles while wanting to pursue education beyond the first grade, and gender segregation in schools restricts their ability to pursue further education.
Monetary issues
Another threat to Iran’s educational system is a lack of capital, which leads to a dearth of trained teachers, inadequate facilities, and antiquated equipment.
Many educational facilities are subpar and unsafe, with a scarcity of teaching areas. In fact, one-third of Iran’s schools are so flimsy that they must be demolished and rebuilt.
The city council chair in Tehran, Ray and Tajrish, Mohsen Hashemi, said that “700 schools in Tehran will be destroyed in case of a severe storm, let alone earthquake.”
Despite the government’s efforts to enhance educational investment, Iran’s educational expenditure remains low compared to other countries in the region.
According to the World Bank, Iran’s education expenditure as a percentage of GDP was 3.6% in 2020, much lower than the average education expenditure in other upper-middle-income nations.
While Iranian Constitution states, “The government is obliged to provide free elementary and high school education for all members of the nation and facilitate free higher education for all until the country is self-sufficient.” In contrast, Rouhani has ordered to shut down many schools in rural communities and to cut down the budget in the past few years.
An assistant professor at Allameh University stated that Iran’s percentage allocation of money to education is much less than the United Nations’ recommendation.
In addition, the school system cannot keep up with technological improvements due to a lack of resources. The lack of technology investment has led to outmoded equipment and a lack of teacher training, which has limited the use of technology in education and hampered Iranian students’ acquisition of digital skills.
Digital Inequality
Adding on, digital inequality is a problem that students have faced in recent years. A 2017 survey showed that 28% of Iranians had no internet access or only minimal internet access. While those with internet access, 80% of the users lived in cities and only 20% in rural areas.
During the coronavirus pandemic in 2019, when online learning was prioritised in Iran to reduce the virus’s spread, a considerable number of students dropped out. This was due to their inability to buy an internet connection and limited internet access in their area.
Political interference
Additionally, in Iran, the educational system is greatly influenced by the government, which has resulted in the politicisation of education and the promotion of a specific ideology.
The Iranian government strictly controls the curriculum, textbooks, and instructional materials used in schools and universities. School curricula are frequently linked with the government’s political and religious ideas, emphasising promoting Islamic values and the government’s version of Iranian culture and history.
The Iranian government’s influence on the educational system extends beyond classroom content.
It also affects the hiring and firing of teachers and university professors and the appointment of administrators. This can result in discriminatory hiring practices and the exclusion of individuals who do not align with the government’s ideologies, limiting the educational system’s diversity of perspectives and ideas.
Moreover, the Iranian government actively monitors and controls academic research, publications, and activities within the educational institutions.
Scholars, educators, and students who express opposing viewpoints or engage in critical thinking undermining the government’s narratives face restriction, intimidation, and even persecution. This generates fear and self-censorship among educators and students, restricting academic independence and the sharing of varied ideas and opinions.
As a result, the politics of education in Iran may impair students’ ability to think critically, question, and consider alternate points of view. It can limit their exposure to different points of view, limit their academic independence, and hinder their capacity to acquire critical thinking abilities, which are necessary for personal growth, societal progress, and fostering an open and inclusive intellectual environment.
Depletion of talent Finally, brain drain is another educational challenge that Iran is currently confronting. Many talented and educated Iranians are fleeing the nation for better career prospects and higher pay.
According to the IMF, which studied 61 nations, Iran has the highest rate of brain drain, with 150,000 educated Iranians leaving their native country each year. The annual economic loss from brain drain is estimated at $50 billion or higher.
This brain drain deprives the country of its brightest minds, reducing the country’s potential for economic growth and progress.
Addressing these challenges requires significant reforms and investment in the education system.
The Iranian government must prioritise education by boosting funding in schools and universities, hiring and training qualified teachers, and upgrading curricula to emphasise critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity.
Furthermore, the government must address educational challenges experienced by female students, particularly in rural regions, and promote gender equality in education.
Conclusion
Investing in technology is also essential for developing Iran’s educational system. The government must offer the most up-to-date technology to schools and institutions and invest in training teachers to use it successfully in the classroom. This will not only help students build digital abilities, but it will also prepare them for the demands of the twenty-first-century labour market.
By doing so, Iran can overcome these challenges and build a more prosperous and successful future.
Togo, officially known as the Togolese Republic, is a small tropical nation on Africa’s west coast. It is bordered by Ghana, Benin, and Burkina Faso and is home to approximately 8.5 million people. Despite its scenic coastal location along the Gulf of Guinea, Togo remains one of the least developed countries in the region, with significant disparities between rural and urban areas.¹
This article aims to delve into several significant challenges confronting the education system in Togo. Education is an essential part of Togo’s national development roadmap for 2020–2025. While crises in Togo have hindered progress in education, the government has committed to developing effective education strategies. The development of Togo’s education system includes addressing numerous challenges.²
Poverty
Upon the culmination of primary school, over 50% of children in low- and middle-income nations struggle to read and comprehend a basic story. This learning crisis threatens countries’ efforts to build human capital and achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), undermining sustainable public disclosure. The poverty level is twice as high in rural areas (58.8%) as in urban areas (26.5%) in Togo. This disparity largely stems from concentrated economic growth in modern sectors and limited access to quality services. Notably, poverty is more prevalent in female-headed households, with a rate of 45.7% compared to 45.2% in male-headed households. Women face greater vulnerability due to limited access to economic opportunities, education, healthcare, and other essential socio-economic amenities.
Togo’s Human Capital Index (HCI) score, standing at 0.43, reflects the concerning reality that children born in Togo today will only achieve 43% of their potential productivity as adults due to limited access to essential services such as healthcare, education, and proper nutrition. The experiences children have in early childhood significantly impact their lifelong development. Providing nurturing care during this crucial period is essential. Pre-primary education is recognised as a vital intervention in early childhood.³
Primary Education Expenditure
Primary education expenditure per child of primary education age in Togo is USD 297 (PPP), 47.2% below the average for the Sub-Saharan Africa region and 65.3% above the average for low-income countries. Togo’s education sector suffers from chronic underfunding, leading to insufficient resources for schools, low teacher salaries, and inadequate infrastructure. This affects the overall quality of education and limits the government’s ability to address other educational challenges effectively.⁴
In Togo, some private elementary schools (e.g., École Française and the American School of Lomé) have computer laboratories, but the school fees are not within the reach of the average Togolese family. Some private secondary schools, particularly those following the French education system and participating in external French examinations, provide computer laboratories for their students’ use., but only about 5% of Togolese youth know how to use computers.⁵
Learning Poverty
Togo, as well as many other African countries, is facing a learning crisis. Learning poverty is one of the factors contributing to low educational attainment. As per the World Bank and UNESCO estimations, 82% of children are not able to read and understand an age-appropriate text by age 10. Boys are less likely to achieve minimum proficiency at the end of primary school (81.5%) than girls (79.8%) in Togo. Notably, learning poverty rates are higher among boys than girls in Togo. In Togo, data from large-scale student learning assessments reveals that 81 per cent of children fail to reach the Minimum Proficiency Levels (MPL) by the end of primary school, as indicated by statistics from grade 6 in 2019. 5 per cent of primary school-aged children are not enrolled in school.⁶
According to the 2016 PASEC assessment at the beginning of schooling, the Togolese education system is among the least effective, with at least 50% of students who do not sufficiently master the knowledge and skills to pursue schooling in good conditions.⁷
Adolescent Girls Out of School
In Togo, 28 per cent (2017) of adolescent girls are out of school. Violence against children is still frequent and rarely denounced because it is considered legitimate by adults. The practice of child marriage affects 11.2% of girls aged 15–19. Girls’ dropouts persist because of pregnancies and the risk of violence.⁸
School dropout rates
The share of out-of-school children is lower for boys (2.8%) than for girls (7.8%). According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, the primary school completion rate was 87 per cent in 2022 for girls and 91 per cent for boys. However, the completion rates for lower secondary education indicate a significant decline, with only 59.9 per cent of girls and 66.8 per cent of boys completing their education. Gross enrolment rates for secondary education were 58 per cent for females and 70 per cent for males. Gross enrolment in tertiary education was 11 per cent for women in 2020 versus 19 per cent for men. This shows a significant drop-off in enrolment and completion as students progress to the next levels.⁹¹⁰
The language of instruction throughout the school system is French, the official language of Togo. However, local languages are used in public and denominational kindergartens, but they remain confined to this level of education. ¹¹ There exists a concern within certain segments of the Togolese population regarding the potential premature erosion of the effectiveness of French. As it stands, French is the exclusive medium of education and serves as the primary language for communication across various sectors of society, including infrastructure and commercial endeavors. There is an observable deterioration in the teaching standards of the French language.¹²
Economic and social development issues
Togo faces significant challenges in achieving universal primary education. There are pronounced social disparities, particularly in academic programs, with girls and disadvantaged groups bearing the brunt of these inequalities. Regional disparities also persist, limiting schooling opportunities across different areas. Primary and secondary education suffer from high repetition rates, highlighting inefficiencies in the education system. Additionally, there is a notable gap between the skills acquired through education and the job market demands.
Togo’s education sector’s learning and working conditions are substandard, characterised by insufficient resources for purchasing equipment. Access to various levels and types of learning remains limited, exacerbating the educational divide. Furthermore, the distribution of teachers is uneven, with many being underqualified and exploited. The scarcity of books and teaching materials further hampers the learning process for both educators and students.
The utilisation of information and statistical systems is minimal, hindering effective planning and decision-making in education. Administrative management is also lacking, contributing to inefficiencies and bureaucratic hurdles. Moreover, there is inadequate oversight of the demands from the socio-professional sectors, leading to mismatches between educational outputs and the needs of the workforce. Addressing these multifaceted challenges is crucial for improving the quality and accessibility of education in Togo.¹³
Disputes between the government and teachers
Togo has experienced significant tensions and disputes between the government and teachers in recent years. These disputes often revolve around inadequate pay, poor working conditions, a lack of resources, and demands for educational reforms.
The SDI study (2016) has shown that most teachers do not master teaching content. On average, only 45% of the teachers scored well on a test designed to measure student achievements.¹⁴¹⁵
Highlight success stories and initiatives
Togo is ranked 162nd in 2021-2022 in terms of human development. The index of the gender development rate is 0.849, and the gender inequality index is 0.580. The government continues to expand access to social services and strengthen the institutional framework for gender.¹⁶
The country is making enormous efforts to recruit 3,300 teachers, but the State is still facing a demand to improve student performance. Despite these challenges, the transition rate from primary to secondary education increased to 84.5 per cent.¹⁷
For the past four years, a mobile library has been travelling through remote areas in Togo. It is suitable for those parents who cannot afford the books. This effort made Togo’s history known to generations in the French language through storytelling, with the belief that modern education must be combined with traditional ways that were lost due to colonisation.¹⁸
Owing to funding from Japan, the World Bank, and UNICEF, the refrigeration of vaccines during the pandemic has been reinforced or renewed in almost 95% of the country’s health facilities. The percentage of children with access to primary health care at the community level in the Savannah and Kara regions increased from 80.4% in 2021 to 82.2% in 2022.¹⁹
The UNICEF office in Togo has received vital support from financial partners, covering 32% of the COVID-19 Response Plan. These funds, provided by the Government of Japan, USAID, the Global Partnership for Education, and VLISCO, have played a crucial role in implementing measures to combat the spread of the virus and mitigate its socio-economic impact in Togo.
Togo’s formal education system operates on a 2-6-6 structure, and efforts have been made to enhance its quality and effectiveness. UNICEF and UNESCO conducted a comprehensive analysis of the Togolese education sector, proposing strategies to improve learning outcomes. As a result, Togo has adopted a national teacher policy aimed at enhancing teacher training, professionalism, and effectiveness, thereby improving educational standards across the country.
UNFPA has initiated a national program targeting teenage pregnancies and marriages, both within school and out-of-school settings. Aligned with Togo’s National Equity, Equality, and Gender Policy, this program aims to tackle gender disparities in education and promote gender equality. By addressing issues such as early marriages and pregnancies, the program contributes to fostering a more inclusive and equitable education system in Togo.
The country took steps in early 2022 to make birth registration free, the rate of which is nearly 83%. Several investments have improved children’s access to justice without reducing the extent of children’s deprivation or improving their care.²⁰
Conclusion
Addressing these challenges requires comprehensive reforms, including investments in infrastructure, teacher training, curriculum development, and policies aimed at promoting gender equality and inclusivity in education and enhancing social protection initiatives. Additionally, fostering partnerships with international organisations and donors can help mobilise resources to support education initiatives in Togo.
¹⁸ Togo education: A better focus on indigenous authors • FRANCE 24 English. (n.d.). www.youtube.com. Retrieved February 14, 2024, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0M6ax4BS4_c
The first educational transition occurred in 1948, from the colonial education system to a national system. The second educational transition happened after 1962, from a national education to the so-called ‘Burmese Way to Socialism’ education. From 1988 to 2010, the country’s education noticeably deteriorated so that almost 40% of children never attended school, and nearly three-quarters failed to complete even primary education (Lwing, 2007).
In September 2014, the parliament and the military-backed government approved the national education law. However, students protested against the national education law, which is highly centralised and restricts academic freedom. In June 2015, an amendment to the national education law was enacted with minor changes. The teachers, scholars and students had to obey social control. In addition, the government prioritised its political agenda in the education system.
Education Budget and the System in the Country
With education spending 2.91 per cent of the GDP, the lack of an education budget (approximately three times that of the military budget) further hinders growth. As a result, compared to other Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam, children in Myanmar do significantly worse on standardised tests. The new country has begun reforms, such as the gradual implementation of free education through high school. Despite some progress, there is still a long way to go (Children of the Mekong).
Genocide of Rohingya People by Myanmar and its Effect on Children’s Education
The Rohingyas, a Myanmar ethnic group, have been denied fundamental human rights, including citizenship. They have been subjected to terrible oppression, prejudice, violence, torture, unfair prosecution, murder, and great poverty for decades. Rakhine State’s hostile environment has caused the Rohingyas to evacuate their homes and seek asylum in neighbouring nations (Shohel, 2023). This erupted the children’s fundamental right to education while asylum-seeking and travelling with much trauma.
Many villagers have fled the fighting and their burned homes during the decade-long civil conflict. Many villages seek refuge in the bush, and the number of internally displaced people (IDPs) is growing. Hundreds of villagers lost their homes and left their communities during the recent conflict in Kachin State, northern Myanmar (Lwin, 2019). Thousands of Rohingya men, women, and children were shot and burned in a matter of weeks during the violence against the Rohingya community in northern Rakhine State, western Myanmar; masses of Rohingya women and girls were raped; infant children were killed; men and boys were arbitrarily arrested; several hundred villages were destroyed in arson attacks; and more than 700,000 people were forced to flee to neighbouring countries (Washington Post, 2017).
There are around one million Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh, including 300,000 who entered as a result of previous years’ violence (Washington Post, 2017). More than half of the Rohingya refugees are women and girls, with 60% being minors under 18 (Oxfam, 2018). According to the UNHCR (2018), 97,418 Myanmar refugees live in nine refugee camps along the Thai-Myanmar border. 54.4% are under 18 (The Border Consortium (TBC)). This is a question of nearly half of the population how to get proper education in refugee camps. In addition, Malaysia is one of the transit countries for refugees, and Malaysia has thousands of Rohingya refugees that have no legal refugee status by the government.
Over 31,000 refugee children from southeast Myanmar’s conflict-torn Kayah State require immediate financial assistance to continue their education. Despite the continuous violence in Kayah, pupils attend community schools, including makeshift classrooms in internally displaced persons (IDP) camps (The Irrawaddy, 2022).
How Different Are Minorities Getting Education?
Although the name ‘Burma’ is derived from the Bamar people, who constitute two-thirds of the country’s population, according to official government data, Burma is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in the region, with over 135 ethnic groups. The country’s geographic location has drawn settlers from various backgrounds throughout history. There are over 100 languages spoken, and minority ethnic populations are estimated to make up approximately 40-60% of the total population and occupy half of the land area (Humanitarian Aid Relief Trust (HART), 2021).
The Bamar (68%), Chin (2.5%), Kachin (1.5%), Karen (7%), Kayah (1.83%), Mon (2%), Rakhine (4%) and Shan (9%) are the eight ‘official’ groups. The figures are from 2016. The sea gipsies’ of the southern islands, the “long-necked” ladies of Padaung, the Nagas on the Indian boundary, and the tattooed women of Chin State, not to mention the Pa-O, Wa, Kokang, Akha, and Lahu indigenous peoples, are all part of these broad groups. The country’s major religions are Theravada Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Animism.
Teaching minority languages in state schools has been prohibited in the Burmese education system since 1962, and this policy remains in place today (Lwin, 2017); even though Myanmar has an estimated population of 51 million people who speak over 100 languages and dialects, as stated above.
A teacher and some students including novice Buddhist nuns at Aung Myae OO Monastic Education School on Sagaing Hill across the Irrawaddy River from Mandalay. The ‘civilians’ have decorated their faces with thanaka, a skin protector and, among women and girls, a fashion cosmetic made from tree bark that has been used in Myanmar for at least the past two millennia. Photo by Dan Lundberg on Flickr.
The Hardship of Language in Education, Especially Ethnic Language
The language of education is not neutral since it reflects the historically determined ability of one or more groups to elevate their language to such prominence within a state. A curriculum may also contain classes that educate about local history. In certain circumstances, language is the primary divide behind ethnic conflict and civil war (Shohel, 2023). For example, Bormann, Cederman, and Vogt (2017) demonstrate that linguistic cleavages are increasingly prevalent. A centralised education sector often fails to adequately address the grievances arising from rights to identity and language (Dryden-Peterson & Mulimbi, 2016).
Child Soldiers and Child Labour
A civil war necessitates many soldiers, and both sides of the conflict use children to strengthen their forces. Although it is difficult to determine due to a lack of official estimates, tens of thousands of child soldiers are undoubtedly present in Myanmar (Children of the Mekong). These children, many orphans, are frequently enlisted or sold to armies. They are indoctrinated and pushed to battle after they join the military. Solving this problem will necessitate a reduction in ethnic tensions and enhance political stability, both of which appear unattainable.
According to UNICEF, one out of every four children aged 6 to 15 works. There are two reasons for this: schooling is still costly, and lack of finance for the education sector sometimes means that the children receive insufficient education. As a result, many rural residents prefer to send their children to work to earn money (Children of the Mekong).
Gender inequality
The military authority has been the norm rather than the exception in Myanmar for 50 years. For many decades, women were barred from holding leadership positions and were denied equal economic and educational possibilities as men. During these decades, social conventions decided that women and girls should control the household, family, and other caretaking chores while males should be leaders, owing to the country’s military and hyper-masculinity. This period’s patriarchal worldview is exemplified by the military-drafted 2008 constitution, which regularly refers to women as mothers and proclaims that specific vocations “are suitable only for men.” Myanmar was ranked second most discriminating in the 2021 Social Institutions and Gender Index2 out of nine Southeast Asian countries (UN Women & UNDP, 2022).
According to the women who responded to the survey in December 2021, “After the military takeover, all the hopes and aims are gone, and everything has been difficult. The education system is worsening, and the scarcity of jobs is increasing” Kayin resident, 55 years old (UN Women & UNDP, 2022).
According to the Ministry of Population’s 2019 survey, 12.8% of the population has one of the six disabilities: 6.3% have a visual impairment; 2.4% have a hearing impairment; 5.4% have difficulty walking; 4.4% have difficulty remembering/concentrating; 1.9% have difficulty self-care; and 1.6% have difficulty communicating (DoP, 2020, p. 93).
According to the Ministry of Education, students with disabilities attended 14.72% of all regular primary and secondary schools in 2019. In Myanmar, statistics show that education for disabled children is scarce (Tonegawa, 2022).
DoP et al., 2017: 156 estimate that 45.4% of children with impairments aged 5-9 years and 31.4% of children with disabilities aged 10-13 years have never attended school. The enrolment rate of disabled children is low compared to Myanmar’s overall net enrollment rate in formal education, which is 98.5% in formal primary education and 79.2% in formal lower secondary school. In Myanmar, school enrollment for disabled children is low (Tonegawa, 2022). This multi-sectoral review holds that Myanmar’s success in meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is largely dependent.
Unqualified Higher Education Teachers and Teachers under Threat
The University scholars are expected to be positioned at the nexus of teacher training and research practice. The scarcity of research-related scholars is a crucial issue for Myanmar, with their minimal studies on their research engagement.
The teachers also, as well as students, are under threat of ongoing conflict. The 2021 coup and the civil war affected teachers’ safety. In addition, eleven though the teacher is threatened by their lives, their income is insufficient to survive.
Conclusion
The second anniversary of Myanmar’s February 2021 coup d’état has just passed, and the country’s terrible state of armed warfare, insurgency, turmoil, and anarchy has only worsened. With the uncertainty surrounding the postponed general elections this year, which most believe will not be free, fair, or genuine, the civil war inside Myanmar is projected to worsen in 2023. There appears to be no end in sight. All of these conditions deteriorate the access to quality education for many children.
References
The Border Consortium (TBC). (n.d.). TBC’s Strategic Plan for 2023-2025.
Children of the Mekong. (n.d.). Education in Myanmar: challenges created by an unstable political environment. Children of the Mekong. Retrieved August 11, 2023, from https://www.childrenofthemekong.org/education-in-myanmar-challenges-created-by-an-unstable-political-environment/
CNN. (n.d.). Myanmar fast facts. CNN. Retrieved September 7, 2018, from. https://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/30/world/asia/myanmar-fast-facts/index.html
Government of Mynmar & UNICEF. (2020, December). Myanmar 2019-2020 Education Budget Brief. https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/myanmar-2019-2020-education-budget-brief-december-2020
https://www.hart-uk.org/a-brief-overview-of-the-ethnic-minorities-of-burma/. (2021, February 8). A Brief Overview of the Ethnic Minorities of Burma. Humanitarian Aid Relief Trust (HART). Retrieved August 11, 2023, from https://www.hart-uk.org/a-brief-overview-of-the-ethnic-minorities-of-burma/
Humanitarian Aid Relief Trust (HART). (2021, February 8). A Brief Overview of the Ethnic Minorities of Burma. Humanitarian Aid Relief Trust (HART). Retrieved August 11, 2023, from https://www.hart-uk.org/a-brief-overview-of-the-ethnic-minorities-of-burma/
The Irrawaddy. (2022, November 24). Southeast Myanmar’s Refugee Children Need Funding to Stay in School. The Irrawaddy. Retrieved August 11, 2023, from https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/southeast-myanmars-refugee-children-need-funding-to-stay-in-school.html
Kyaw, M. T. (n.d.). Factors Influencing Teacher Educators’ Research Engagement in the Reform Process of Teacher Education Institutions in Myanmar. SAGE Open, 11(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211061349
Lall, M. (2023). The state of education, pre-reform. In Myanmar’s Education Reforms: A Pathway to Social Justice? UCL Press.
Lwin, T. (2017, March 10). Comments on the National Education Strategic Plan (2016–2021) of the Ministry of Education, Myanmar.
Lwin, T. (2019, June 13). Global justice, national education and local realities in Myanmar: a civil society perspective. Asia Pacific Education Review, (20), 273–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-019-09595-z
Lwing, T. (2007, July). Education and democracy in Burma: Decentralization and classroom-level educational reform. In Forum: International forum for democratic studies.
Myanmar Department of Population. (n.d.). 2019 Inter-censal survey. Department of Population. Retrieved August 11, 2023, from https://www.dop.gov.mm/en/publication-category/2019-inter-censal-survey
Shohel, M. (2023, May 3). Lives of the Rohingya children in limbo: Childhood, education, and children’s rights in refugee camps in Bangladesh. PROSPECTS, (53), 131–149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-022-09631-8
Tonegawa, Y. (2022, January 15). Contextualization of Inclusive Education: Education for Children with Disabilities in Myanmar. International Journal of Instruction, 15(1), 365-380.
UNCHR. (n.d.). United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). (2018). Refugees in Thailand. https://www.unhcr.org/th/en.
Untitled. (n.d.). UNFPA Myanmar. Retrieved August 11, 2023, from https://myanmar.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/inter-censal_survey_union_report_english.pdf
UN Women & UNDP. (n.d.). Regressing Gender Equality in Myanmar: Women living under the pandemic and military rule. Report.
UN Women & UNDP. (2022, March 8). Regressing Gender Equality in Myanmar: Women living under the Pandemic and Military rule – Myanmar. ReliefWeb. Retrieved August 11, 2023, from https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/regressing-gender-equality-myanmar-women-living-under-pandemic-and-military-rule
Washington Post. (2017, October 25). Bangladesh is now home to almost 1 million Rohingya refugees. Washington Post. Retrieved August 11, 2023, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/10/25/bangladesh-is-now-home-to-almost-1-million-rohingya-refugees/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.24ca7b467a0e.
Refugees are those who have a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion. Experiencing such fears in early childhood will critically impact a child’s cognitive, social, emotional and physical development.
As articulated in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, children have specific rights. These include principles of protection from harm, provision of basic needs, recognition and participation of children as rights holders.
Through the Temporary Protection Regulation passed in 2014, Syrian refugees are provided specific protection to specific rights, including education, shelter, food, water, housing, social security mechanisms and the labour market.
Via the 2015 EU-Turkey joint action plan, both sides aim for enhanced educational opportunities across all levels and a commitment to assisting the host nation, Turkey, particularly in aspects like infrastructure and various services.
In 2018, the Global Compact on Refugees set a goal that governments should be in a position to include refugee children and youth in the national education systems within the time period of three months of displacement.
The earthquake in February 2023 inflicted additional distress upon refugees and other displaced children in Turkey, particularly impacting their access to education.
Education is a fundamental entitlement for every refugee and individual seeking asylum. Turkey is facing a significant influx of asylum seekers and is also a host to a substantial refugee population, a majority composed of Syrians. Unfortunately, these refugee children are unable to access education due to their circumstances. The existing educational framework for refugees in Turkey is burdened with numerous difficulties and obstacles.
Many enrol in Turkish schools after obtaining an international protection identification document bearing the foreigner identification number. The tuition fee waiver announced by the council of ministers only applies to students from Syria. Turkish classes are offered at Public Education Centres free of charge. For this, the international protection identification document is required. However, if insufficient persons are enrolled, said classes may not commence on the requested enrolment date.
Individuals hailing from Syria are eligible to enrol in Temporary Education Centres, whereas refugees and asylum seekers from different nations are exclusively permitted to register at Turkish public schools. Temporary Educational Centres are schools which provide educational services for persons arriving in Turkey for a temporary period. These were initially staffed by Syrian volunteers who UNICEF and other NGOs financially compensated. As per the Ministry of National Education, a considerable proportion of the refugee children were out of school in 2019. However, there has been a substantial decline in the number of children not attending since the initial years of the Syrian refugee crisis. As of 2017, the Turkish authorities have been implementing measures to integrate Syrian refugees into the country’s public education system.
Statelessness within the Syrian population residing in Turkey presents a notable issue. Challenges persist due to factors such as the lack of proper civil documentation, difficulties in acquiring birth certificates in Turkey, and the citizenship regulations of Syria. Notably, Syrian nationality can only be inherited by a child from their mother if the birth occurs within the borders of Syria.
Within Turkey, if the mother’s relationship with a Syrian or Turkish father is unestablished or unclear, then the child faces the risk of statelessness. An absence of Turkish citizenship or permanent residency leads to them being guests within the country and failing to be integrated into Turkish society.
While Turkey is a signatory to the UN Refugee Convention, it has submitted a request for geographical limitation. Consequently, individuals such as Syrians and those arriving from various other nations are ineligible for complete refugee status in Turkey. Alternatively, they are registered under the “temporary protection” regulation.
This Temporary Protection Regulation allows refugees access to essential resources such as healthcare and education. Once the refugees are registered under the Temporary Protection Regulation, they are required to remain within that province.
Additional issues arise from the lack of recognition of temporary and international protection status in 16 provinces across Turkey. The reduction of 25% to 20% foreign population within a given neighbourhood continues to cause significant issues. Finding jobs becomes a difficulty since the individual is forced to look for jobs only in the area the individual is registered in, thereby limiting the job opportunities that may be available to them in other places, such as Istanbul.
A recurring trend observed worldwide is that during times of crisis, the education sector is frequently the first to be halted and the last to be reinstated. It is crucial to be have access to education regardless of whether you are an international protection applicant or status holder or if you plan to resettle in another country or go back to your country. It helps the children develop skills, stability as well as integrate them socially and academically into the education system.
Language barriers
In a study conducted, it was seen that the main problem was that of language. The employed teachers did not speak Arabic, and the children, in this case, did not speak Turkish. There are no activities carried out within the classroom setting to facilitate their learning. There is no varied material brought in to help aid their understanding. Teachers need to be provided with vocational training to better facilitate the learning process for refugee children through teaching strategies and teaching aids.
The teachers have little to no awareness on these refugee children, not just from an educational point of view but also on a psychological level. A majority of these students have been subjected to post-traumatic stress disorder, primarily due to the conditions they are coming from.
The children’s communication barrier furthers the issue within education. When the refugee children are put with other students who can speak the Turkish language, they are often subject to mockery, lack confidence and isolation due to the language barrier.
Syrian children and youngsters attending informal education and integration courses at Relief International communıty centre. Photo by: EU/ECHO/Abdurrahman Antakyali , Gaziantep.
Familial background and trauma
In a gender analysis carried out in 2019 to explore the Syrian refugee journey with a focus on the difficulties encountered by refugees in Turkey, it was observed that a notable portion of Syrian refugee children were not attending school. Among those who were in school, there were elevated levels of trauma. This significantly undermined the educational advancement of these children.
Children were initially not sent to schools since parents felt their stay in the country where they sought asylum would be temporary. However, once the families realised the permanency of their residency in Turkey, the enrolment rate in schools by refugee children steadily increased.
Research has consistently shown the positive effects of education on children who experience post-traumatic stress and develop coping and resilience skills. This can prove particularly helpful and effective for refugee children in the long run.
However, despite the positive impact education has, it comes with complications. An unstable or unsupportive home environment hinders a smooth educational process for these children and impacts the quality of education.
Refugee families typically find themselves having lost all they had. This, alongside the financial strain, forces their children into early marriage, leading them to drop out of school. Worth mentioning, is that in 2020 there was a drop in boys attending school. It was seen that reasons such as sending children to work due to augmented economic hardship were one of the reasons to withdraw boys from schools.
Decline in services
Natural disasters, epidemics and wars spare no children. Turkey was gripped by conflict following Covid-19 and the earthquake in February 2023. Refugee children are often subject to poverty, poor living conditions, minimal access to safe drinking water, healthcare and food, as well as compelled to work owing to the unfavourable economic circumstances faced by the family, leading to the children being forced to neglect their education. The Conditional Cash Transfer for Education for Syrians and Other Refugees and the Promotion of Integration of Syrian Children into Turkish Education were seen as ways to address the economic barriers to enrolment and attendance.
These children have been victims of distressing experiences at a young age, such as the maiming and death of their near and dear ones. Due to the unstable environment, this results in a delay with their access to education. These children may end up receiving education in inadequate educational facilities, thus hindering their ability to fully grasp and unleash their full potential.
Racism and xenophobia
Instances of racist and xenophobic assaults have experienced a substantial rise as well. This has been further exacerbated by various politicians within the country. This continues to subject refugees from Syria and other places in constant danger throughout schools, homes and workplaces. Taking into consideration the duty Turkey has towards its refugees, especially as a signatory to the UN Refugee Convention, the politicians, members of the government, policymakers, and other influential persons should make a conscious effort not to instigate animosity towards refugees within the country.
Teachers and other resource persons need to make a conscious effort to bring awareness among the children of the host state that discrimination, racism, bullying, and other such acts are unacceptable behaviour. The citizens or parents of the students of the host state also need to be made aware to end discriminatory treatment towards these refugee children and teach their children to be respectful towards their fellow peers. Basic language skills among refugee children would allow for both parties to have a basic level of interaction. If not, refugees will persist in grappling with the notable issue of being excluded and marginalized.
The host nation must actively strive to comprehend the challenges that refugees encounter within an educational environment, encompassing issues like bullying, discrimination, language barriers, and similar concerns. These factors impact the necessity of forging connections and fostering a sense of belonging.
Hatay, Turkey, 9 February 2023. Members of the UK’s International Search & Rescue Team continue working in coordination with other search and rescue teams looking for survivors. Photo by UK ISAR Team
February 2023 earthquake
The earthquake that struck the nation in February 2023 has exacerbated the challenges faced by refugees. Basic resources, such as education, are now inaccessible for children. Several schools are being repurposed as shelters for those affected by the earthquake.
UNICEF has managed to help 140,000 children with access to formal or non-formal education and has provided more than 260,000 children with access to mental health and psychosocial support. UNICEF and AFAD have played an active role in helping the Ministry of National Education with temporary education measures such as tents for catch-up classes and exam preparation. However, even UNICEF recognises the need for longer-term support needed for rebuilding and recovering the lives of these children and their families.
It is a common pattern that education, particularly for vulnerable groups, tends to be disregarded and relegated to a lower priority. This situation could potentially push these vulnerable children into engaging in child labor as a means of supporting themselves or their families during these challenging circumstances. The increase in bias and impoverishment persists among these Syrian refugees, and when combined with the restricted educational access, they find themselves compelled to work merely to sustain their livelihoods.
Conclusions
The hosting country should make efforts to guarantee the integration of displaced children, regardless of their specific classification as refugees, internally displaced persons, asylum seekers, or unaccompanied minors, into the local education system in their respective residential areas.
Considering the massive influx of migration that Turkey receives due to global humanitarian crises, it would be wise if Turkey took an active initiative not only in policy-making but in its implementation regarding the education situation for said displaced children.
Partners within the country as well as internationally should step up to help the Turkish authorities by equipping them with the required support in the form of financial aid, technical assistance, expertise in terms of teachers who have the talent to speak the relevant languages, subject knowledge and to be able to cater to the different kinds of difficulties that come with teaching children that are coming from volatile environments.
It’s important to acknowledge that a teacher tasked with educating refugee children, along with those who are internally displaced, asylum seekers, or unaccompanied minors, is instructing a group that faces challenges beyond what is typically encountered in a standard classroom setting.
These children may have disabilities from birth or due to violence in their countries, have seen family members and friends killed or injured, or have even been victims of sexual violence. It’s highly probable that their education might have been disrupted well before their arrival in the host country. As a result, teachers in these contexts need to possess not only strong teaching skills but also a profound understanding of their classroom environment and a sensitivity to the unique situations they are confronted with. This is a difficult challenge.
The host country and other partners assisting the host country must also be mindful of this fact while hiring teachers and other resource persons. Education, especially for refugees, is exceptionally beneficial for social restructuring and socioeconomic development.
As the viability of the Turkiye Compact is under ongoing evaluation, particularly given the difficulties involved, its execution would notably contribute to supporting Turkey and enhancing the nation’s economy. Additionally, it would assist refugees in achieving greater self-sufficiency and decreasing their reliance on humanitarian aid funding.
Introducing a universally recognized certification system for these children would enhance the ease of educational transitions, if they were to occur. This system would facilitate enrollment, attendance, retention, progression, and completion, fostering a more inclusive, equitable, and high-quality education for both refugee children and youth.
Ignored, bullied, rejected and discriminated against are common words used to describe the experience of refugee children in schools. It is high time this narration and plight are changed. Turkey must uphold its treaty obligations under the 1951 Refugee Convention, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), Convention against Torture and continue to uphold the principle of nonrefoulement. Ensuring education provides a robust platform for children to be emboldened and enrich their future. It is an immense responsibility that should be shouldered by the state and non-state actors at the local, national and international levels to maximise all efforts to ensure a safe space for these children.
References
Diamond, M., & Oberg, C. (2019). Gender-Related Challenges in Educational Interventions with Syrian Refugee Parents of Trauma-Affected Children in Turkey. Children (Basel, Switzerland), 6(10), 110. https://doi.org/10.3390/children6100110
The world is a mosaic of culture and diversity. However, there is a continuous depletion in the inclusion of indigenous languages within this mosaic. The way in which conversation revolves around indigenous languages shows us that universality continues to remain a mirage.
We need to recognise the beauty and enrichment that comes from these languages. It spreads awareness about the language, cultures and traditions. Indigenous languages inform us about a community that has been wiped from the face of the earth. Indigenous languages contain intricate threads that help weave together identities and histories. The presence of the rich cultural heritage and other vibrant expressions and traditional knowledge in the form of ancestral wisdom from these indigenous languages recognises the need to be preserved and revitalised.
Revival of what is lost helps develop identities of potential persons who belong to these communities and are unaware of the same. Society must realise that recognition and revival of indigenous languages go beyond linguistic diversity. Acknowledging these indigenous languages is a sign of recognising and respecting the presence of these otherwise unknown communities. Furthermore, it is a recognition of the rights and contributions of the people within these indigenous communities.
The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples clearly indicates, particularly through Article 13, the right to languages as a right for indigenous peoples. Boosting this element among indigenous communities enhances their position in the political, economic, social and cultural spheres. This will be a step closer to ending all forms of discrimination and eliminating much of the oppression and marginalisation they encounter daily. All indigenous peoples are entitled to all human rights recognised under international law. It needs to be reaffirmed that there is no discrimination regarding the promotion and protection of the rights of indigenous peoples.
Your language is a part of your identity, and eradication of this due to various circumstances, including but not limited to colonialism, forced assimilation, and the influence of other dominant languages, is a devastating blow to the overall growth of the individual and the concerned indigenous communities.
Revival of these indigenous languages is necessary for the upbringing and education of the children within these communities. This will also ensure it is in line with the rights of the child. This will also help achieve a cultural resurgence. However, there is a decline in the transmission of indigenous languages from one generation to the next generation. It may always remain a missing piece in the narrative.
How do we take this leap towards achieving universality regarding indigenous languages? As a society, we must establish worthwhile and sustainable solutions that future generations can carry out to avoid the further extinction of indigenous languages. Even though there are treaties and agreements, States must maintain a positive partnership with these indigenous peoples. Steps must be taken to encourage intergenerational transmission of Indigenous languages. This would help empower younger generations to reconnect with their ancestral background through their linguistic roots. This will ensure that these interwoven narratives will help create a leap towards universality and may flourish for years to come.
Guatemala is a lower-middle-income country, representing the largest economy in Central America and accounting for 25% of the GDP of the Central American Common Market (CACM). Moreover, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), in its June 2019 report, confirmed that the country’s geographic and demographic characteristics allow it to have great potential for economic development. Another important factor, is that Guatemala is the most densely populated country in Central America, with a population of around 17 million[1], characterized by extreme youthfulness: one-third are under 15 years old, just under two-thirds are between 15 and 65 years old, and only 5.6% are over 65 years old[2]. Education in Guatemala has become increasingly accessible; however, low levels of literacy, educational attainment and retention remain as fundamental problems. Furthermore, there is a great disparity between rural and urban areas, men and women, and between indigenous and landina populations the biggest ethnic group. Some of the educational challenges that Guatemala is facing are limited access to education, poor quality of education, language barriers, poverty, gender inequality and violence.
Children in their classroom in El Renacimiento school, in Villa Nueva, Guatemala. Photo by Maria Fleischmann / World Bank on Flickr.
Limited access to education
A significant percentage of the Guatemalan population lives in rural areas, where access to education is limited due to inadequate infrastructure, teacher shortages and high costs. The population density in rural areas is motivated by the importance of the agricultural sector in the country, a characteristic of which is dual production. For example, the presence of large and efficient farms that produce bananas, oil palm, sugar along with other products for export, and small producers focused on the cultivation of basic cereals. This characterizes Guatemala as the Central American country with the largest number of subsistence farmers, about one million[3], leading to approximately 49% of the Guatemalan population living in rural areas. Some of them facing with the challenge of lacking basic resources, such as textbooks and teaching materials.
Language barriers
Guatemala is a multicultural land with a diverse population that includes many ethnic groups and has experienced an exponential increase in its inhabitants. Multiculturalism is a further prerequisite for the demographic conformation of the country. The Guatemalan population is diverse and includes 23 different ethnic groups, each of which has a distinct language and culture. The largest ethnic group is the Ladino group, which is formed by 56% of the population. They are generally non-indigenous Guatemalans, mestizos, and westernized Amerindians with western culture. About 42% of the inhabitants, 6.5 million people, belong to the numerous Maya people (among the most important are the Itzá, K’iche, Poqomchí, Q’anjob’al and Q’eqchi’)[4]. Moreover, it is steadily decreasing due to the so-called “Ladinisation” process, which refers to the phenomenon whereby Western culture is adopted by members of indigenous societies, who cease to identify themselves culturally as “indigenous”.
Tz’utuhil Maya class at a school in Panabaj, Guatemala. Photo by Erik Törner on Flickr.
However, disparities between indigenous and non-indigenous populations in terms of employment, income, health services and education remain. In Guatemala, racism and discrimination persist against these inhabitants who, although an integral part of the country’s society and economy, have no representation at the political level. In addition, many of these indigenous communities speak Mayan languages, which are not widely spoken outside these communities. This language barrier can make it difficult for children to learn in school, especially if they are taught in Spanish, the country’s official language. This discrimination also affects poverty levels in the country which impact 75% of indigenous people and 36% of non-indigenous people[5].
Poverty
Poverty is a significant obstacle to education in Guatemala, which as it turns out afflicts indigenous peoples the most, accentuating inequality. With 59% of the Guatemalan population living in poverty, mainly affecting rural areas where the most indigenous populations are located.
One indicator of current inequality is the GINI indicator, which in 2014 recorded a GINI coefficient of 48.3, the sixth highest in Latin America[6].
Families living in poverty often cannot afford to send their children to school or must rely on their children working to help support the family. Furthermore, although the economy is growing, the number of people living in poverty is increasing and social and economic inequalities are growing[7].
Gender inequality
Today, nationally, 81.5% of the population is literate, through it is possible to highlight a clear gender inequality. Although 51.5% of citizens are women and 48.5% are men, literacy is 78% and 85% respectively, both figures decrease in rural areas[8]. There may be many reasons for this, with cultural background and beliefs playing a primary role.
Violence and insecurity
The country is severely affected by the inequalities, violence and corruption that have historically affected the country. This directly and significantly impacts the education system; the high levels of violence have led to several critical issues that make it difficult for children and young people to access education and receive a quality education. The main critical issues are the vulnerability of young citizens to violence, a shortage of qualified educators/teachers who have decided to migrate or work in areas with less crime, and the negative impact this has had on the physical infrastructure of schools, leading to a lack of adequate spaces. This situation leads to an increased general sense of insecurity and instability that affects the social and economic development of the country.
Despite today’s critical issues, the Guatemalan administration has improved school coverage in recent decades. Since the peace accords of 1996, all administrations have supported the expansion of primary schooling and since 2006 the net enrollment rate at this level has averaged 95 per cent. Guatemala came close to achieving universal coverage in 2009 when the net enrolment rate at the primary level was 99%[9]. Since that year, however, Guatemala has suffered a slight setback (Figure 1). The reasons for this decrease require a deeper analysis of factors such as migration, climate change, the impact of social programs and demographic elements[10].
Nevertheless, overall, significant progress has been made in the expansion of educational provision, and the increase in net primary school enrollment is almost double the increase in population at the beginning of the 21st century[11].
In order to counter the limited access to education in rural areas, the low quality of education, the gender gap and racism present in this sector, the Guatemalan government can take several measures. Firstly, an increase in funding could be requested, the government could allocate more resources to increase quality, increasing the presence of facilities in rural areas and ensuring more resources for students and teachers. Building facilities in rural areas would improve access to education for all its citizens, limiting the inequality between Landini and indigenous people.
However, this effort in this area should be complemented by major efforts to address poverty, gender inequality and violence. Addressing these issues is therefore crucial to improving the overall education system and creating a brighter future for the country’s children and youth. This effort will be necessary and will need the full cooperation of the government, civil society, and international partners.
References:
Guerra Morales N.M., Rivas A.L., (Septiembre 2019). XII Censo Nacional de Población y VII de Vivienda – Principales resultados censo 2018, Insituto Nacional de Estadística Guatemala.
INE Guatemala, (2016).“República de Guatemala: Encuesta Nacional de “Condiciones de Vida 2014. Tomo I”. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, República de Guatemala.
Mamo D., Berger D.N., Bulanin N., Alix L.G., Jensen W.M., (April 2022). The Indigenous World 2022, International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA), 36th Edition.
Minority Rights Group International(MRG), (January 2018). World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. Guatemala and Maya.
Spross de Riviera V., and Abascal M., Guatemala: El efecto de las políticas públicas docentes, Inter-American Dialogue/CIEN, 2015).
United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), (2021). The Outlook for Agriculture and Rural Development in the Americas.
UNESCO-OREALC, Balance de los 20 años del Proyecto Principal de Educación en América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago de Chile, UNESCO, 2001.
World Bank, (2019). Guatemala Overview 2019.
[1] INE Guatemala, (2016).“República de Guatemala: Encuesta Nacional de “Condiciones de Vida 2014. Tomo I”. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, República de Guatemala
[2] Guerra Morales N.M., Rivas A.L., (septiembre 2019). XII Censo Nacional de Población y VII de Vivienda – Principales resultados censo 2018, Insituto Nacional de Estadística Guatemala, pp. 9-13
[3] United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), (2021). The Outlook for Agriculture and Rural Development in the Americas, pp. 20-30.
[4] Minority Rights Group International (MRG), (January 2018). World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. Guatemala and Maya.
[5] Mamo D., Berger D.N., Bulanin N., Alix L.G., Jensen W.M., (April 2022). The Indigenous World 2022, International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA), 36th Edition, pp. 402-411.
[8] Guerra Morales N.M., Rivas A.L., (septiembre 2019). XII Censo Nacional de Población y VII de Vivienda – Principales resultados censo 2018, Insituto Nacional de Estadística Guatemala, pp. 13.
[9] Spross de Riviera V., and Abascal M., Guatemala: El efecto de las políticas públicas docentes, Inter-American Dialogue/CIEN, 2015).
[10] Spross de Riviera V., and Abascal M., Guatemala: El efecto de las políticas públicas docentes, Inter-American Dialogue/CIEN, 2015).
[11] UNESCO-OREALC, Balance de los 20 años del Proyecto Principal de Educación en América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago de Chile, UNESCO, 2001.
Andorra, a small principality nestled in the Pyrenees mountains between France and Spain, faces several challenges in its education system. With a limited population, access to higher education can be restricted, and the linguistic diversity of Catalan, Spanish, and French poses difficulties for some students. The country also grapples with a teacher shortage, particularly in specialized subjects, and there is a need for more vocational training opportunities.
Achieving educational equity and modernizing teaching approaches are additional areas of concern.
However, Andorra strives to adapt its curriculum to meet the changing needs of the job market while providing a quality education for its students.
Present day Andorra has three official languages—Catalan, Spanish, and French—due to historical, cultural, and geographical influences. Catalan has a strong historical and cultural presence in the region, while the proximity to Spain and France has led to the adoption of Spanish and French as official languages. This linguistic diversity reflects Andorra’s cultural heritage, and the recognition of multiple official languages demonstrates inclusivity, preserves linguistic and cultural diversity, and ensures that the rights and identities of its inhabitants are respected. This language diversity can create challenges in the education system and other sectors of the country.
The linguistic diversity poses challenges as it requires educational institutions to accommodate all three languages to their curriculum and instruction. It can be demanding for students and teachers to become proficient in multiple languages and can result in a heavy workload.
Additionally, Andorra has a multicultural population, and students from various linguistic backgrounds may enroll in schools. This further adds to the language barrier, as students whose primary language is not one of the official languages may face difficulties in understanding and communicating effectively.
The language barrier in Andorra necessitates dedicated efforts to provide language instruction, resources, and support to ensure that all students have equal access to education and opportunities. It also presents opportunities for cultural exchange and multilingualism but requires careful planning and resources to address the challenges that arise due to the linguistic diversity.
Addressing the language-imposed educational challenges in Andorra requires a comprehensive and multifaceted approach. Firstly, investment in language support programs is crucial to assist students in developing proficiency in all three official languages. These programs should provide targeted language instruction, personalized tutoring, and access to language acquisition resources. By tailoring support to the specific needs of students, language barriers can be overcome, and students can improve their language skills. Secondly, providing ongoing professional development opportunities for teachers is vital. Teachers should receive training on effective language instruction strategies, techniques for incorporating language learning across the curriculum, and addressing the unique challenges faced by students from diverse language backgrounds. By equipping teachers with the necessary skills and knowledge, they can better support students in their language development journey. Additionally, curriculum adaptation is necessary to address the needs of students in a multilingual environment. The curriculum should be designed to foster language development in all three languages, ensuring that content is accessible and supportive of language learning. Incorporating culturally relevant materials and diverse perspectives can enhance students’ engagement and language acquisition.
Lastly, promoting equitable assessment practices is important to fairly evaluate students’ learning outcomes. Assessment methods should consider students’ language proficiency in multiple languages and account for their linguistic diversity. Providing clear guidelines and accommodations for students with different language backgrounds can ensure that assessments accurately reflect their knowledge and skills. Overall, creating an inclusive and supportive environment is crucial. It involves fostering a positive school culture that values linguistic diversity and provides opportunities for students to develop proficiency in multiple languages. By investing in language support programs, offering professional development for teachers, adapting the curriculum, and implementing equitable assessment practices, Andorra can address the language-imposed educational challenges and ensure that all students receive a quality education.
Reference:
Everything about education in Andorra. (2021, June 9). Les Bullideres. https://www.lesbullideres.com/post/about-education-in-andorra
We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. By clicking “Accept All”, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. However, you may visit "Cookie Settings" to provide a controlled consent.
This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience.
Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. These cookies ensure basic functionalities and security features of the website, anonymously.
Cookie
Duration
Description
cookielawinfo-checkbox-analytics
11 months
This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-functional
11 months
The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-necessary
11 months
This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-others
11 months
This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other.
cookielawinfo-checkbox-performance
11 months
This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance".
viewed_cookie_policy
11 months
The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. It does not store any personal data.
Functional cookies help to perform certain functionalities like sharing the content of the website on social media platforms, collect feedbacks, and other third-party features.
Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better user experience for the visitors.
Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc.
Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads.
