(Indonesian) Educational Challenges in USA

Tantangan Pendidikan di Amerika Serikat

Ditulis oleh Dimitrios Chasouras & Jimena Villot Lopez

 

Pendahuluan

Amerika Serikat adalah salah satu negara terkaya di dunia, dengan PDB mencapai 25 triliun dolar AS pada tahun 2022.i Namun, pada tahun 2020, pengeluaran untuk pendidikan hanya sebesar 12,7% dari total belanja pemerintah.ii Alokasi anggaran ini mencerminkan sistem pendanaan sekolah di AS, di mana dukungan keuangan berasal dari pendapatan pemerintah dan sumber daya lokal, yang mengikat anggaran sekolah pada masing-masing distrik. Model pendanaan seperti ini menciptakan kesenjangan besar dalam akses pendidikan bagi siswa. Sekolah-sekolah di daerah yang lebih makmur, dengan tingkat kemiskinan yang rendah, mendapatkan dana jauh lebih besar per siswa dibandingkan sekolah-sekolah di wilayah yang kurang mampu secara ekonomi. Dampak dari kesenjangan ini semakin terlihat nyata dalam kehidupan siswa dan capaian akademik mereka.

 

Isu lain yang dibahas dalam artikel ini adalah maraknya kekerasan bersenjata di sekolah, yang menjadi salah satu tantangan terbesar bagi institusi pendidikan di Amerika Serikat. Terbatasnya sumber daya dan meningkatnya kekhawatiran akan keamanan akibat kekerasan bersenjata menciptakan ancaman yang kompleks terhadap kesejahteraan dan keselamatan siswa di seluruh negeri. Kedua isu ini akan dibahas secara terpisah, dengan menguraikan kompleksitas yang menyertainya serta langkah-langkah yang dapat diambil untuk mengatasinya, atau setidaknya meminimalkan dampaknya. Penting untuk diingat bahwa pendidikan memiliki peran krusial dalam perkembangan anak, sehingga permasalahan ini harus ditanggapi dengan serius. Dukungan dari pemerintah dan otoritas lokal juga sangat dibutuhkan untuk menjalankan strategi komprehensif—seperti perencanaan anggaran, peningkatan sistem keamanan, dan layanan kesehatan mental—demi menjamin keselamatan dan kesejahteraan semua siswa, tanpa memandang latar belakang sosial ekonomi maupun etnis.

 

Kekerasan Senjata Api dan Dampaknya di Sekolah

Dengan sekitar 50% rumah tangga di Amerika Serikat memiliki setidaknya satu senjata api terdaftar, serta lonjakan besar dalam produksi senjata,iii kasus kekerasan bersenjata meningkat tajam dalam beberapa tahun terakhir—baik di lingkungan rumah maupun ruang publik, termasuk area sekolah. Insiden-insiden ini mencakup bunuh diri, penyerangan, hingga penembakan massal di sekolah, dan telah menjadikan senjata api sebagai penyebab utama kematian anak-anak dan remaja. Sekitar 76% penembakan di sekolah dilakukan oleh siswa yang memperoleh senjata dari rumah sendiri atau kerabat dekat.iv Dibandingkan negaranegara berpenghasilan tinggi lainnya, anak-anak usia 5–14 tahun di AS memiliki kemungkinan 21 kali lebih tinggi untuk menjadi korban tembakan, sementara remaja usia 15– 24 tahun berisiko 23 kali lebih besar.v Setiap tahunnya, sekitar 4.000 anak dan remaja (usia 0–19 tahun) tewas tertembak, dan 15.000 lainnya mengalami luka—rata-rata 53 anak tertembak setiap hari. Data tersebut menggarisbawahi permasalahan yang sangat mengkhawatirkan dan kompleks, yang berdampak luas terhadap kehidupan anak-anak, remaja, dan orang dewasa di Amerika Serikat. Dampak kekerasan bersenjata tidak hanya dirasakan oleh korban langsung, tetapi juga oleh keluarga, teman dekat, dan para saksi. Para penyintas kerap mengalami gangguan psikologis seperti rasa takut yang berkepanjangan dan PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder)vi, yang dapat memicu perilaku agresif maupun penyalahgunaan zat seperti alkohol dan narkoba.

 

Untuk mengatasi kekerasan senjata di sekolah, beberapa negara bagian di AS telah membuat undang-undang yang mengizinkan orang-orang tertentu membawa senjata di area sekolah— bahkan dalam beberapa kasus, hal ini diwajibkan.vii Meskipun begitu, sekolah, kampus, dan universitas tetap memiliki hak untuk menetapkan aturan sendiri terkait keamanan senjata, misalnya apakah staf sekolah boleh membawa senjata atau tidak. Namun karena jumlah kasus terus meningkat, pemerintah daerah tetap mendorong kebijakan semacam ini. Sebagian besar upaya yang dilakukan selama ini bersifat reaktif atau hanya merespons setelah kejadian terjadi. Contohnya seperti membuat poster atau kampanye visual, melibatkan orang dewasa dan teman sebaya dalam kegiatan pendampingan.viii Dari semua pendekatan itu, solusi berbasis komunitas dianggap paling cocok karena bisa menyesuaikan dengan kebutuhan tiap sekolah atau wilayah. Sayangnya, tidak semua daerah punya cukup dana untuk menjalankan program seperti ini.

 

Dampak dari kebijakan dan program yang telah disebutkan sebelumnya belum menunjukkan perubahan signifikan terhadap kasus kekerasan senjata di sekolah. Sebagian besar siswa justru merasa semakin terancam dan tidak aman.ix Sekolah-sekolah yang menerapkan program keamanan senjata, mengizinkan kepemilikan senjata, atau melibatkan aparat keamanan menghadapi beban biaya tambahan yang sulit mereka tanggung. Sementara itu, siswa yang mengikuti simulasi penembakan mengalami tekanan mental yang lebih besar, seperti depresi, stres, kecemasan, dan rasa takut akan kematian.

 

Beberapa peneliti justru menemukan bahwa undang-undang kepemilikan senjata yang lebih ketat dapat memberikan dampak positif, seperti berkurangnya jumlah siswa yang bolos sekolah karena merasa tidak aman, siswa yang membawa senjata, dan siswa yang terluka akibat kekerasan.x

 

Namun, tantangan dan solusi terkait kekerasan senjata ini tidak berdampak secara merata pada semua kelompok siswa.xi Misalnya, remaja kulit hitam 17 kali lebih mungkin meninggal karena pembunuhan dan 13 kali lebih mungkin dirawat di rumah sakit akibat penyerangan bersenjata dibandingkan remaja kulit putih. Sementara itu, remaja Latinx 2,7 kali lebih mungkin meninggal karena pembunuhan.xii Statistik ini tetap berlaku bahkan di negara bagian dan kota yang sama, menunjukkan bahwa beberapa kelompok etnis menghadapi tantangan yang jauh lebih berat. Kebijakan yang tidak merata dan kurangnya investasi di wilayahwilayah tertentu telah membuat komunitas Afrika-Amerika dan Latinx kesulitan menjalankan program-program di atas atau memberi pendampingan bagi korban. Hal ini disebabkan oleh keterbatasan sumber daya, kemiskinan, dan pengangguran—yang justru memperparah kasus kekerasan senjata dalam beberapa tahun terakhir.xiii

 

Grafik dari CDC, Wonder.

 

Meski undang-undang keamanan senjata telah diterapkan, siswa Afrika-Amerika justru cenderung merasa lebih terancam dengan keberadaan senjata dan aparat keamanan di lingkungan sekolah dibandingkan kelompok lainnya.xiv Sebaliknya, siswa kulit putih— meskipun memiliki risiko kematian akibat kekerasan bersenjata yang lebih rendah—lebih rentan mengalami bunuh diri jika terdapat senjata api di rumah atau di lingkungan sekolah. Kekerasan senjata jelas menjadi tantangan bagi siswa di seluruh Amerika Serikat, namun setiap komunitas dan kelompok etnis mengalami bentuk dan tingkat ancaman yang berbedabeda. Perbedaan ini berdampak nyata pada performa sekolah secara keseluruhan, termasuk dalam hal kehadiran, nilai ujian, tingkat kelulusan, rasa aman, dan persepsi terhadap ancaman.

 

Dampak Kekurangan Dana terhadap Proses Pembelajaran

Guru-guru berdemonstrasi sebagai protes untuk pendanaan pendidikan di Los Angeles. Foto oleh LaTerrian McIntosh di Unsplash.

 

Sejak abad ke-19 di Amerika Serikat, sekolah-sekolah umum sebagian besar didanai melalui sumber-sumber lokal dan negara bagian, dengan sumber utama pendanaan lokal berasal dari pajak properti yang dibayar oleh distrik sekolah di setiap komunitas.xv Ini berarti bahwa uang yang digunakan untuk mendanai sebuah sekolah di distrik tertentu berasal dari pajak properti yang dibayar oleh pemilik rumah di distrik yang sama. Keuntungannya adalah bahwa sistem ini memastikan kontrol lokal, yang berarti anggaran dialokasikan sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan prioritas khusus sekolah-sekolah di masing-masing distrik. Namun, sistem ini juga memiliki beberapa kekurangan.

 

Pendanaan pendidikan sangat bergantung pada pajak properti, yang mengakibatkan kesenjangan antara sekolah-sekolah di kawasan kaya dan kurang mampu. Model pendanaan ini telah membuat banyak sekolah kesulitan untuk menyediakan sumber daya dan peluang yang dibutuhkan oleh siswa. Sekolah-sekolah di lingkungan kaya, atau bahkan yang memiliki lebih sedikit siswa berpenghasilan rendah, menerima pendanaan yang jauh lebih besar per siswa dibandingkan dengan sekolah-sekolah di daerah dengan tingkat kemiskinan yang lebih tinggi, yang memiliki jumlah siswa berpenghasilan rendah yang lebih besar. Sebagai contoh, pada tahun 2020 di Illinois, Golfview Elementary School melayani 550 siswa, di mana 86% di antaranya dianggap berpenghasilan rendah. Di sisi lain, Algonquin Lakes Elementary memiliki 425 siswa, dengan kurang dari 50% di antaranya yang berpenghasilan rendah, dan Algonquin menerima lebih dari $2.000 lebih banyak per siswa dibandingkan dengan

Golfview setiap tahunnya.xvi Hal ini berarti bahwa kebutuhan pendidikan anak-anak di Algonquin memiliki kemungkinan lebih besar untuk terpenuhi, meningkatkan pengalaman pendidikan mereka, sementara siswa di Golfview menghadapi ketertinggalan yang signifikan.

 

Salah satu konsekuensi lain dari kesenjangan pendanaan di berbagai daerah adalah kompensasi yang tidak memadai yang diterima oleh pendidik di sekolah-sekolah. Untuk mencukupi kebutuhan hidup, banyak guru yang bekerja di beberapa pekerjaan sekaligus. Tuntutan untuk mendapatkan upah yang layak semakin keras karena pendidik yang berdedikasi perlu dapat mengalokasikan seluruh energi mereka untuk pekerjaan mereka, bukan khawatir tentang stabilitas keuangan mereka. Ini lebih dari sekadar kompensasi yang adil.

 

Kekurangan guru menyebabkan masalah yang lebih besar di sekolah-sekolah negeri. Sekolah-sekolah yang lebih kaya, dengan siswa dari keluarga berpenghasilan tinggi, cenderung mempekerjakan guru yang lebih berpengalaman dan berkualitas, yang tentu saja membutuhkan lebih banyak biaya. Sejak pandemi, sekolah-sekolah kesulitan untuk merekrut guru yang berkualitas, dan sebagian besar sekolah dengan siswa berpenghasilan rendah tidak mampu membayar gaji guru yang berpengalaman, yang sangat mengurangi jumlah pelamar potensial untuk posisi guru.xvii Karena hal ini, beberapa negara bagian mulai merendahkan persyaratan kualifikasi, memungkinkan guru yang tidak bersertifikat untuk mengisi posisi yang kosong, yang berdampak pada pendidikan anak-anak. Christopher Blair, mantan pengawas Bullock County, Alabama, dikutip pada 2022 menyatakan bahwa “ketika Anda memiliki guru yang tidak bersertifikat, darurat, atau kurang berpengalaman, siswa berada di kelas yang tidak akan memberikan tingkat ketelitian dan pengalaman kelas yang seharusnya mereka dapatkan.”xviii

 

Konsekuensi dari kekurangan guru ini meluas hingga ke kelas yang terlalu padat, yang menyulitkan guru untuk memberikan perhatian dan dukungan secara individu kepada siswa. Pada 2022, CNN mengunjungi sebuah sekolah di luar Phoenix, di mana seorang guru melaporkan harus mengajar lebih dari 70 siswa di kelas biologi-nya.xix Hal ini memberikan dampak negatif bagi siswa, karena menghambat perhatian yang lebih personal, tetapi juga bagi guru, karena bisa menyebabkan kelelahan dan stres karena harus fokus pada begitu banyak siswa sekaligus. Selain itu, buku pelajaran yang sudah usang dan kekurangan perlengkapan kelas tetap menjadi masalah yang sering ditemui di sekolah-sekolah dengan dana terbatas.

 

Seperti yang terlihat dari analisis sebelumnya, model pendanaan untuk sekolah negeri telah menciptakan kesenjangan yang serius dalam kualitas pendidikan yang diterima oleh siswa di seluruh negeri. Model ini memiliki keuntungan, seperti kontrol lokal dan sumber pendapatan yang konsisten bagi komunitas, namun kelemahannya jauh lebih besar. Sekolah-sekolah di daerah yang lebih kaya atau yang memiliki lebih sedikit siswa berpenghasilan rendah menerima dana yang jauh lebih besar per siswa dibandingkan dengan sekolah-sekolah di daerah dengan tingkat kemiskinan yang tinggi. Perbedaan finansial ini menyebabkan akses yang tidak merata terhadap sumber daya dan peluang, yang pada gilirannya memperparah ketidaksetaraan pendidikan.

 

Masalah mendesak lain yang muncul akibat kurangnya dana adalah kompensasi yang tidak memadai untuk guru, yang memaksa mereka untuk bekerja di beberapa pekerjaan tambahan demi memenuhi kebutuhan hidup, sehingga mengganggu kemampuan mereka untuk fokus sepenuhnya pada pengajaran. Hal ini berarti bahwa semakin sedikit guru berpengalaman yang akan memilih bekerja dalam kondisi seperti itu dan lebih memilih sekolah yang lebih kaya atau beralih ke pekerjaan di bidang lain. Akibatnya, sekolah-sekolah dengan jumlah siswa berpenghasilan rendah yang lebih banyak akan kesulitan mempertahankan guru yang berkualitas. Ditambah dengan kelas yang terlalu padat, buku pelajaran yang sudah usang, dan kekurangan perlengkapan, masalah-masalah ini secara keseluruhan menimbulkan tantangan besar bagi pendidikan siswa di sekolah-sekolah negeri di Amerika Serikat. Menutup kesenjangan pendanaan dan mengatasi kekurangan guru adalah langkah penting untuk memastikan setiap anak memiliki akses ke pendidikan berkualitas, tanpa memandang latar belakang sosial ekonomi mereka.

 

Faktanya, para peneliti telah memperdebatkan nilai dari peningkatan pendanaan pendidikan. Namun, penelitian terbaru menemukan bahwa ketika pendanaan diarahkan ke sekolahsekolah dengan tingkat kemiskinan tinggi, dan uang tersebut digunakan untuk tujuan yang penting, seperti menggaji guru berpengalaman, pekerja sosial, atau program untuk memenuhi kebutuhan akademis siswa, hal ini dapat sangat meningkatkan keberhasilan siswa.xx

 

Kesimpulan

Kekerasan senjata dan ketimpangan pendanaan di sekolah-sekolah dapat dianggap sebagai masalah yang saling terkait dalam hal menghambat pendidikan siswa karena beberapa alasan. Pertama, ketika sekolah tidak memiliki anggaran yang diperlukan untuk mempekerjakan staf yang dibutuhkan, seperti pendidik, hal ini juga berarti tidak ada staf keamanan untuk mengontrol siapa yang dapat masuk dan keluar dari sekolah. Namun, ini juga mencakup pekerja sosial, psikolog sekolah, dan staf yang dirancang untuk mendukung siswa dan membantu perlindungan kesehatan mental mereka setelah situasi berbahaya yang mungkin terjadi. Selain itu, pada bagian pertama, telah dibahas salah satu metode yang dibicarakan untuk melindungi dari kekerasan senjata di sekolah adalah dengan mempertimbangkan untuk mempersenjatai guru sebagai langkah darurat. Hal ini dapat merugikan karena beberapa alasan, karena dapat menciptakan lingkungan yang tidak aman bagi anak-anak di sekolah dan, pada saat yang sama, dapat menghalangi guru untuk bekerja di sekolah-sekolah yang mengharuskan mereka membawa senjata untuk perlindungan.

 

Ini juga terkait dengan pembagian distrik karena faktor komunitas dan sosial ekonomi dapat memengaruhi secara tidak langsung tingkat keamanan sekolah. Sekolah-sekolah di distrik atau lingkungan yang terpinggirkan secara ekonomi mungkin menghadapi tantangan tambahan, termasuk tingkat kejahatan yang lebih tinggi dan paparan terhadap kekerasan di masyarakat.

 

Penting untuk ditekankan bahwa pendanaan pendidikan dan pembagian sumber daya mungkin memainkan peran dalam menangani masalah keselamatan sekolah dan kekerasan senjata; namun, itu hanya bagian dari solusi masalah ini. Beberapa strategi lain untuk mencegah kekerasan senjata termasuk dukungan kesehatan mental oleh penasihat atau konselor di sekolah, upaya anti-bullying, dan keterlibatan komunitas. Selain itu, baik secara lokal maupun regional, pemimpin distrik dan politisi harus menangani faktor-faktor mendasar yang mungkin membuat individu resort ke kekerasan dan mengadopsi langkah-langkah kontrol senjata yang bertanggung jawab.

 

Pendidikan adalah salah satu elemen terpenting dalam perkembangan anak, dan langkahlangkah yang menghambat atau menghalangi pendidikan yang layak bagi siswa di sekolah negeri harus segera ditangani. Memastikan lingkungan sekolah yang aman dan terjamin adalah tantangan yang kompleks, dan ini membutuhkan komitmen serius di seluruh negara.

 

Referensi

  1. World Bank Data (2023) GDP (current US$) – United States. The World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=US
  2. World Bank Data (2023) United States. The World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/country/united-states
  3. Mitchell, T. (June 2017). The demographics of gun ownership in the U.S. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2017/06/22/the-demographics-of-gunownership/
  4. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (July 2023). How can we prevent gun violence in American schools? Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/how-canwe-prevent-gun-violence-in-schools/
  5. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (May 2019). The impact of gun violence on children and teens. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-ofgun-violence-on-children-and-teens/
  6. ibid.
  7. RAND. (2020, April). The effects of laws allowing armed staff in K–12 schools. RAND

Corporation. https://www.rand.org/research/gun-policy/analysis/laws-allowing-armed-staff-inK12-schools.html

  1. OJJDP. (n.d.). Section VII: Education Initiatives and Alternative Prevention Strategies. (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Report) https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh176/files/pubs/gun_violence/sect07.html
  2. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (2020, December). The danger of guns on campus. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/guns-on-campus/
  3. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (May 2019). The impact of gun violence on children and teens. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-ofgun-violence-on-children-and-teens/
  4. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (July 2023). How can we prevent gun violence in American schools? Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/how-canwe-prevent-gun-violence-in-schools/
  5. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (May 2019). The impact of gun violence on children and teens. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-ofgun-violence-on-children-and-teens/
  6. ibid.
  7. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (2020, December). The danger of guns on campus. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/guns-on-campus/

xvFindLaw Team (June 2016) Education Funding: State and Local Sources. FindLaw. https://www/findlaw.com/education/curriculum-standards-school-funding.com

  1. Mathewson T.G (October 2020) New data: Even within the same district, some wealthy schools get millions more than poor ones (The Hechinger Report).

https://hechingerreport.org/new-data-even-within-the-same-district-some-wealthy-schools-getmillions-more-than-poor-ones/

  1. Richman, T & Crain, T.P (October 2022) Uncertified teachers filling holes in schools across the South (The Hechinger Report). https://hechingerreport.org/uncertified-teachers-filling-holesin-schools-across-the-south/
  2. Lurye, S & Griesbach, R (September 2022) Teacher shortages are real, but not for the reason you heard (The Hechinger Report). https://hechingerreport.org/teacher-shortages-arereal-but-not-for-the-reason-you-heard/
  3. Wolf, Z.B (September 2022) Crises converge on American Education (CNN Politics). https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/01/politics/us-education-schools-crisis-what-matters/index.html

xxMathewson T.G (October 2020) New data: Even within the same district, some wealthy schools get millions more than poor ones (The Hechinger Report).

https://hechingerreport.org/new-data-even-within-the-same-district-some-wealthy-schools-getmillions-more-than-poor-ones/

 

  1. World Bank Data (2023) GDP (current US$) – United States. The World Bank. HYPERLINK “https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=US”https://data.worldbank.org/indi cator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=US
  2. World Bank Data (2023) United States. The World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/country/unitedstates iii Mitchell, T. (June 2017). The demographics of gun ownership in the U.S. Pew Research Center.

https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2017/06/22/the-demographics-of-gun-ownership/ iv Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (July 2023). How can we prevent gun violence in American schools? Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/how-can-we-preventgun-violence-in-schools/ v Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (May 2019). The impact of gun violence on children and teens. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-of-gunviolence-on-children-and-teens/ vi ibid. vii RAND. (2020, April). The effects of laws allowing armed staff in K–12 schools. RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/research/gun-policy/analysis/laws-allowing-armed-staff-in-K12-schools.html

viii OJJDP. (n.d.). Section VII: Education Initiatives and Alternative Prevention Strategies. (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Report) https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh176/files/pubs/gun_violence/sect07.html ix Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (2020, December). The danger of guns on campus. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/guns-on-campus/ x Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (May 2019). The impact of gun violence on children and teens. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-of-gunviolence-on-children-and-teens/ xi Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (July 2023). How can we prevent gun violence in American schools? Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/how-can-we-preventgun-violence-in-schools/ xii Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (May 2019). The impact of gun violence on children and teens. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-of-gunviolence-on-children-and-teens/ xiii ibid. xiv Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (2020, December). The danger of guns on campus. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/guns-on-campus/ xv FindLaw Team (June 2016) Education Funding: State and Local Sources. FindLaw. https://www/findlaw.com/education/curriculum-standards-school-funding.com xvi Mathewson T.G (October 2020) New data: Even within the same district, some wealthy schools get millions more than poor ones (The Hechinger Report). https://hechingerreport.org/new-data-evenwithin-the-same-district-some-wealthy-schools-get-millions-more-than-poor-ones/ xvii Richman, T & Crain, T.P (October 2022) Uncertified teachers filling holes in schools across the South (The Hechinger Report). https://hechingerreport.org/uncertified-teachers-filling-holes-inschools-across-the-south/ xviii Lurye, S & Griesbach, R (September 2022) Teacher shortages are real, but not for the reason you heard (The Hechinger Report). https://hechingerreport.org/teacher-shortages-are-real-but-not-for-thereason-you-heard/ xix Wolf, Z.B (September 2022) Crises converge on American Education (CNN Politics). https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/01/politics/us-education-schools-crisis-what-matters/index.html xx Mathewson T.G (October 2020) New data: Even within the same district, some wealthy schools get millions more than poor ones (The Hechinger Report). https://hechingerreport.org/new-data-evenwithin-the-same-district-some-wealthy-schools-get-millions-more-than-poor-ones/

Tantangan Pendidikan di Amerika Serikat

Ditulis oleh Dimitrios Chasouras & Jimena Villot Lopez

 

Pendahuluan

Amerika Serikat adalah salah satu negara terkaya di dunia, dengan PDB mencapai 25 triliun dolar AS pada tahun 2022.i Namun, pada tahun 2020, pengeluaran untuk pendidikan hanya sebesar 12,7% dari total belanja pemerintah.ii Alokasi anggaran ini mencerminkan sistem pendanaan sekolah di AS, di mana dukungan keuangan berasal dari pendapatan pemerintah dan sumber daya lokal, yang mengikat anggaran sekolah pada masing-masing distrik. Model pendanaan seperti ini menciptakan kesenjangan besar dalam akses pendidikan bagi siswa. Sekolah-sekolah di daerah yang lebih makmur, dengan tingkat kemiskinan yang rendah, mendapatkan dana jauh lebih besar per siswa dibandingkan sekolah-sekolah di wilayah yang kurang mampu secara ekonomi. Dampak dari kesenjangan ini semakin terlihat nyata dalam kehidupan siswa dan capaian akademik mereka.

 

Isu lain yang dibahas dalam artikel ini adalah maraknya kekerasan bersenjata di sekolah, yang menjadi salah satu tantangan terbesar bagi institusi pendidikan di Amerika Serikat. Terbatasnya sumber daya dan meningkatnya kekhawatiran akan keamanan akibat kekerasan bersenjata menciptakan ancaman yang kompleks terhadap kesejahteraan dan keselamatan siswa di seluruh negeri. Kedua isu ini akan dibahas secara terpisah, dengan menguraikan kompleksitas yang menyertainya serta langkah-langkah yang dapat diambil untuk mengatasinya, atau setidaknya meminimalkan dampaknya. Penting untuk diingat bahwa pendidikan memiliki peran krusial dalam perkembangan anak, sehingga permasalahan ini harus ditanggapi dengan serius. Dukungan dari pemerintah dan otoritas lokal juga sangat dibutuhkan untuk menjalankan strategi komprehensif—seperti perencanaan anggaran, peningkatan sistem keamanan, dan layanan kesehatan mental—demi menjamin keselamatan dan kesejahteraan semua siswa, tanpa memandang latar belakang sosial ekonomi maupun etnis.

 

Kekerasan Senjata Api dan Dampaknya di Sekolah

Dengan sekitar 50% rumah tangga di Amerika Serikat memiliki setidaknya satu senjata api terdaftar, serta lonjakan besar dalam produksi senjata,iii kasus kekerasan bersenjata meningkat tajam dalam beberapa tahun terakhir—baik di lingkungan rumah maupun ruang publik, termasuk area sekolah. Insiden-insiden ini mencakup bunuh diri, penyerangan, hingga penembakan massal di sekolah, dan telah menjadikan senjata api sebagai penyebab utama kematian anak-anak dan remaja. Sekitar 76% penembakan di sekolah dilakukan oleh siswa yang memperoleh senjata dari rumah sendiri atau kerabat dekat.iv Dibandingkan negaranegara berpenghasilan tinggi lainnya, anak-anak usia 5–14 tahun di AS memiliki kemungkinan 21 kali lebih tinggi untuk menjadi korban tembakan, sementara remaja usia 15– 24 tahun berisiko 23 kali lebih besar.v Setiap tahunnya, sekitar 4.000 anak dan remaja (usia 0–19 tahun) tewas tertembak, dan 15.000 lainnya mengalami luka—rata-rata 53 anak tertembak setiap hari. Data tersebut menggarisbawahi permasalahan yang sangat mengkhawatirkan dan kompleks, yang berdampak luas terhadap kehidupan anak-anak, remaja, dan orang dewasa di Amerika Serikat. Dampak kekerasan bersenjata tidak hanya dirasakan oleh korban langsung, tetapi juga oleh keluarga, teman dekat, dan para saksi. Para penyintas kerap mengalami gangguan psikologis seperti rasa takut yang berkepanjangan dan PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder)vi, yang dapat memicu perilaku agresif maupun penyalahgunaan zat seperti alkohol dan narkoba.

 

Untuk mengatasi kekerasan senjata di sekolah, beberapa negara bagian di AS telah membuat undang-undang yang mengizinkan orang-orang tertentu membawa senjata di area sekolah— bahkan dalam beberapa kasus, hal ini diwajibkan.vii Meskipun begitu, sekolah, kampus, dan universitas tetap memiliki hak untuk menetapkan aturan sendiri terkait keamanan senjata, misalnya apakah staf sekolah boleh membawa senjata atau tidak. Namun karena jumlah kasus terus meningkat, pemerintah daerah tetap mendorong kebijakan semacam ini. Sebagian besar upaya yang dilakukan selama ini bersifat reaktif atau hanya merespons setelah kejadian terjadi. Contohnya seperti membuat poster atau kampanye visual, melibatkan orang dewasa dan teman sebaya dalam kegiatan pendampingan.viii Dari semua pendekatan itu, solusi berbasis komunitas dianggap paling cocok karena bisa menyesuaikan dengan kebutuhan tiap sekolah atau wilayah. Sayangnya, tidak semua daerah punya cukup dana untuk menjalankan program seperti ini.

 

Dampak dari kebijakan dan program yang telah disebutkan sebelumnya belum menunjukkan perubahan signifikan terhadap kasus kekerasan senjata di sekolah. Sebagian besar siswa justru merasa semakin terancam dan tidak aman.ix Sekolah-sekolah yang menerapkan program keamanan senjata, mengizinkan kepemilikan senjata, atau melibatkan aparat keamanan menghadapi beban biaya tambahan yang sulit mereka tanggung. Sementara itu, siswa yang mengikuti simulasi penembakan mengalami tekanan mental yang lebih besar, seperti depresi, stres, kecemasan, dan rasa takut akan kematian.

 

Beberapa peneliti justru menemukan bahwa undang-undang kepemilikan senjata yang lebih ketat dapat memberikan dampak positif, seperti berkurangnya jumlah siswa yang bolos sekolah karena merasa tidak aman, siswa yang membawa senjata, dan siswa yang terluka akibat kekerasan.x

 

Namun, tantangan dan solusi terkait kekerasan senjata ini tidak berdampak secara merata pada semua kelompok siswa.xi Misalnya, remaja kulit hitam 17 kali lebih mungkin meninggal karena pembunuhan dan 13 kali lebih mungkin dirawat di rumah sakit akibat penyerangan bersenjata dibandingkan remaja kulit putih. Sementara itu, remaja Latinx 2,7 kali lebih mungkin meninggal karena pembunuhan.xii Statistik ini tetap berlaku bahkan di negara bagian dan kota yang sama, menunjukkan bahwa beberapa kelompok etnis menghadapi tantangan yang jauh lebih berat. Kebijakan yang tidak merata dan kurangnya investasi di wilayahwilayah tertentu telah membuat komunitas Afrika-Amerika dan Latinx kesulitan menjalankan program-program di atas atau memberi pendampingan bagi korban. Hal ini disebabkan oleh keterbatasan sumber daya, kemiskinan, dan pengangguran—yang justru memperparah kasus kekerasan senjata dalam beberapa tahun terakhir.xiii

 

Grafik dari CDC, Wonder.

 

Meski undang-undang keamanan senjata telah diterapkan, siswa Afrika-Amerika justru cenderung merasa lebih terancam dengan keberadaan senjata dan aparat keamanan di lingkungan sekolah dibandingkan kelompok lainnya.xiv Sebaliknya, siswa kulit putih— meskipun memiliki risiko kematian akibat kekerasan bersenjata yang lebih rendah—lebih rentan mengalami bunuh diri jika terdapat senjata api di rumah atau di lingkungan sekolah. Kekerasan senjata jelas menjadi tantangan bagi siswa di seluruh Amerika Serikat, namun setiap komunitas dan kelompok etnis mengalami bentuk dan tingkat ancaman yang berbedabeda. Perbedaan ini berdampak nyata pada performa sekolah secara keseluruhan, termasuk dalam hal kehadiran, nilai ujian, tingkat kelulusan, rasa aman, dan persepsi terhadap ancaman.

 

Dampak Kekurangan Dana terhadap Proses Pembelajaran

Guru-guru berdemonstrasi sebagai protes untuk pendanaan pendidikan di Los Angeles. Foto oleh LaTerrian McIntosh di Unsplash.

 

Sejak abad ke-19 di Amerika Serikat, sekolah-sekolah umum sebagian besar didanai melalui sumber-sumber lokal dan negara bagian, dengan sumber utama pendanaan lokal berasal dari pajak properti yang dibayar oleh distrik sekolah di setiap komunitas.xv Ini berarti bahwa uang yang digunakan untuk mendanai sebuah sekolah di distrik tertentu berasal dari pajak properti yang dibayar oleh pemilik rumah di distrik yang sama. Keuntungannya adalah bahwa sistem ini memastikan kontrol lokal, yang berarti anggaran dialokasikan sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan prioritas khusus sekolah-sekolah di masing-masing distrik. Namun, sistem ini juga memiliki beberapa kekurangan.

 

Pendanaan pendidikan sangat bergantung pada pajak properti, yang mengakibatkan kesenjangan antara sekolah-sekolah di kawasan kaya dan kurang mampu. Model pendanaan ini telah membuat banyak sekolah kesulitan untuk menyediakan sumber daya dan peluang yang dibutuhkan oleh siswa. Sekolah-sekolah di lingkungan kaya, atau bahkan yang memiliki lebih sedikit siswa berpenghasilan rendah, menerima pendanaan yang jauh lebih besar per siswa dibandingkan dengan sekolah-sekolah di daerah dengan tingkat kemiskinan yang lebih tinggi, yang memiliki jumlah siswa berpenghasilan rendah yang lebih besar. Sebagai contoh, pada tahun 2020 di Illinois, Golfview Elementary School melayani 550 siswa, di mana 86% di antaranya dianggap berpenghasilan rendah. Di sisi lain, Algonquin Lakes Elementary memiliki 425 siswa, dengan kurang dari 50% di antaranya yang berpenghasilan rendah, dan Algonquin menerima lebih dari $2.000 lebih banyak per siswa dibandingkan dengan

Golfview setiap tahunnya.xvi Hal ini berarti bahwa kebutuhan pendidikan anak-anak di Algonquin memiliki kemungkinan lebih besar untuk terpenuhi, meningkatkan pengalaman pendidikan mereka, sementara siswa di Golfview menghadapi ketertinggalan yang signifikan.

 

Salah satu konsekuensi lain dari kesenjangan pendanaan di berbagai daerah adalah kompensasi yang tidak memadai yang diterima oleh pendidik di sekolah-sekolah. Untuk mencukupi kebutuhan hidup, banyak guru yang bekerja di beberapa pekerjaan sekaligus. Tuntutan untuk mendapatkan upah yang layak semakin keras karena pendidik yang berdedikasi perlu dapat mengalokasikan seluruh energi mereka untuk pekerjaan mereka, bukan khawatir tentang stabilitas keuangan mereka. Ini lebih dari sekadar kompensasi yang adil.

 

Kekurangan guru menyebabkan masalah yang lebih besar di sekolah-sekolah negeri. Sekolah-sekolah yang lebih kaya, dengan siswa dari keluarga berpenghasilan tinggi, cenderung mempekerjakan guru yang lebih berpengalaman dan berkualitas, yang tentu saja membutuhkan lebih banyak biaya. Sejak pandemi, sekolah-sekolah kesulitan untuk merekrut guru yang berkualitas, dan sebagian besar sekolah dengan siswa berpenghasilan rendah tidak mampu membayar gaji guru yang berpengalaman, yang sangat mengurangi jumlah pelamar potensial untuk posisi guru.xvii Karena hal ini, beberapa negara bagian mulai merendahkan persyaratan kualifikasi, memungkinkan guru yang tidak bersertifikat untuk mengisi posisi yang kosong, yang berdampak pada pendidikan anak-anak. Christopher Blair, mantan pengawas Bullock County, Alabama, dikutip pada 2022 menyatakan bahwa “ketika Anda memiliki guru yang tidak bersertifikat, darurat, atau kurang berpengalaman, siswa berada di kelas yang tidak akan memberikan tingkat ketelitian dan pengalaman kelas yang seharusnya mereka dapatkan.”xviii

 

Konsekuensi dari kekurangan guru ini meluas hingga ke kelas yang terlalu padat, yang menyulitkan guru untuk memberikan perhatian dan dukungan secara individu kepada siswa. Pada 2022, CNN mengunjungi sebuah sekolah di luar Phoenix, di mana seorang guru melaporkan harus mengajar lebih dari 70 siswa di kelas biologi-nya.xix Hal ini memberikan dampak negatif bagi siswa, karena menghambat perhatian yang lebih personal, tetapi juga bagi guru, karena bisa menyebabkan kelelahan dan stres karena harus fokus pada begitu banyak siswa sekaligus. Selain itu, buku pelajaran yang sudah usang dan kekurangan perlengkapan kelas tetap menjadi masalah yang sering ditemui di sekolah-sekolah dengan dana terbatas.

 

Seperti yang terlihat dari analisis sebelumnya, model pendanaan untuk sekolah negeri telah menciptakan kesenjangan yang serius dalam kualitas pendidikan yang diterima oleh siswa di seluruh negeri. Model ini memiliki keuntungan, seperti kontrol lokal dan sumber pendapatan yang konsisten bagi komunitas, namun kelemahannya jauh lebih besar. Sekolah-sekolah di daerah yang lebih kaya atau yang memiliki lebih sedikit siswa berpenghasilan rendah menerima dana yang jauh lebih besar per siswa dibandingkan dengan sekolah-sekolah di daerah dengan tingkat kemiskinan yang tinggi. Perbedaan finansial ini menyebabkan akses yang tidak merata terhadap sumber daya dan peluang, yang pada gilirannya memperparah ketidaksetaraan pendidikan.

 

Masalah mendesak lain yang muncul akibat kurangnya dana adalah kompensasi yang tidak memadai untuk guru, yang memaksa mereka untuk bekerja di beberapa pekerjaan tambahan demi memenuhi kebutuhan hidup, sehingga mengganggu kemampuan mereka untuk fokus sepenuhnya pada pengajaran. Hal ini berarti bahwa semakin sedikit guru berpengalaman yang akan memilih bekerja dalam kondisi seperti itu dan lebih memilih sekolah yang lebih kaya atau beralih ke pekerjaan di bidang lain. Akibatnya, sekolah-sekolah dengan jumlah siswa berpenghasilan rendah yang lebih banyak akan kesulitan mempertahankan guru yang berkualitas. Ditambah dengan kelas yang terlalu padat, buku pelajaran yang sudah usang, dan kekurangan perlengkapan, masalah-masalah ini secara keseluruhan menimbulkan tantangan besar bagi pendidikan siswa di sekolah-sekolah negeri di Amerika Serikat. Menutup kesenjangan pendanaan dan mengatasi kekurangan guru adalah langkah penting untuk memastikan setiap anak memiliki akses ke pendidikan berkualitas, tanpa memandang latar belakang sosial ekonomi mereka.

 

Faktanya, para peneliti telah memperdebatkan nilai dari peningkatan pendanaan pendidikan. Namun, penelitian terbaru menemukan bahwa ketika pendanaan diarahkan ke sekolahsekolah dengan tingkat kemiskinan tinggi, dan uang tersebut digunakan untuk tujuan yang penting, seperti menggaji guru berpengalaman, pekerja sosial, atau program untuk memenuhi kebutuhan akademis siswa, hal ini dapat sangat meningkatkan keberhasilan siswa.xx

 

Kesimpulan

Kekerasan senjata dan ketimpangan pendanaan di sekolah-sekolah dapat dianggap sebagai masalah yang saling terkait dalam hal menghambat pendidikan siswa karena beberapa alasan. Pertama, ketika sekolah tidak memiliki anggaran yang diperlukan untuk mempekerjakan staf yang dibutuhkan, seperti pendidik, hal ini juga berarti tidak ada staf keamanan untuk mengontrol siapa yang dapat masuk dan keluar dari sekolah. Namun, ini juga mencakup pekerja sosial, psikolog sekolah, dan staf yang dirancang untuk mendukung siswa dan membantu perlindungan kesehatan mental mereka setelah situasi berbahaya yang mungkin terjadi. Selain itu, pada bagian pertama, telah dibahas salah satu metode yang dibicarakan untuk melindungi dari kekerasan senjata di sekolah adalah dengan mempertimbangkan untuk mempersenjatai guru sebagai langkah darurat. Hal ini dapat merugikan karena beberapa alasan, karena dapat menciptakan lingkungan yang tidak aman bagi anak-anak di sekolah dan, pada saat yang sama, dapat menghalangi guru untuk bekerja di sekolah-sekolah yang mengharuskan mereka membawa senjata untuk perlindungan.

 

Ini juga terkait dengan pembagian distrik karena faktor komunitas dan sosial ekonomi dapat memengaruhi secara tidak langsung tingkat keamanan sekolah. Sekolah-sekolah di distrik atau lingkungan yang terpinggirkan secara ekonomi mungkin menghadapi tantangan tambahan, termasuk tingkat kejahatan yang lebih tinggi dan paparan terhadap kekerasan di masyarakat.

 

Penting untuk ditekankan bahwa pendanaan pendidikan dan pembagian sumber daya mungkin memainkan peran dalam menangani masalah keselamatan sekolah dan kekerasan senjata; namun, itu hanya bagian dari solusi masalah ini. Beberapa strategi lain untuk mencegah kekerasan senjata termasuk dukungan kesehatan mental oleh penasihat atau konselor di sekolah, upaya anti-bullying, dan keterlibatan komunitas. Selain itu, baik secara lokal maupun regional, pemimpin distrik dan politisi harus menangani faktor-faktor mendasar yang mungkin membuat individu resort ke kekerasan dan mengadopsi langkah-langkah kontrol senjata yang bertanggung jawab.

 

Pendidikan adalah salah satu elemen terpenting dalam perkembangan anak, dan langkahlangkah yang menghambat atau menghalangi pendidikan yang layak bagi siswa di sekolah negeri harus segera ditangani. Memastikan lingkungan sekolah yang aman dan terjamin adalah tantangan yang kompleks, dan ini membutuhkan komitmen serius di seluruh negara.

 

Referensi

  1. World Bank Data (2023) GDP (current US$) – United States. The World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=US
  2. World Bank Data (2023) United States. The World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/country/united-states
  3. Mitchell, T. (June 2017). The demographics of gun ownership in the U.S. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2017/06/22/the-demographics-of-gunownership/
  4. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (July 2023). How can we prevent gun violence in American schools? Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/how-canwe-prevent-gun-violence-in-schools/
  5. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (May 2019). The impact of gun violence on children and teens. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-ofgun-violence-on-children-and-teens/
  6. ibid.
  7. RAND. (2020, April). The effects of laws allowing armed staff in K–12 schools. RAND

Corporation. https://www.rand.org/research/gun-policy/analysis/laws-allowing-armed-staff-inK12-schools.html

  1. OJJDP. (n.d.). Section VII: Education Initiatives and Alternative Prevention Strategies. (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Report) https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh176/files/pubs/gun_violence/sect07.html
  2. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (2020, December). The danger of guns on campus. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/guns-on-campus/
  3. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (May 2019). The impact of gun violence on children and teens. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-ofgun-violence-on-children-and-teens/
  4. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (July 2023). How can we prevent gun violence in American schools? Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/how-canwe-prevent-gun-violence-in-schools/
  5. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (May 2019). The impact of gun violence on children and teens. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-ofgun-violence-on-children-and-teens/
  6. ibid.
  7. Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (2020, December). The danger of guns on campus. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/guns-on-campus/

xvFindLaw Team (June 2016) Education Funding: State and Local Sources. FindLaw. https://www/findlaw.com/education/curriculum-standards-school-funding.com

  1. Mathewson T.G (October 2020) New data: Even within the same district, some wealthy schools get millions more than poor ones (The Hechinger Report).

https://hechingerreport.org/new-data-even-within-the-same-district-some-wealthy-schools-getmillions-more-than-poor-ones/

  1. Richman, T & Crain, T.P (October 2022) Uncertified teachers filling holes in schools across the South (The Hechinger Report). https://hechingerreport.org/uncertified-teachers-filling-holesin-schools-across-the-south/
  2. Lurye, S & Griesbach, R (September 2022) Teacher shortages are real, but not for the reason you heard (The Hechinger Report). https://hechingerreport.org/teacher-shortages-arereal-but-not-for-the-reason-you-heard/
  3. Wolf, Z.B (September 2022) Crises converge on American Education (CNN Politics). https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/01/politics/us-education-schools-crisis-what-matters/index.html

xxMathewson T.G (October 2020) New data: Even within the same district, some wealthy schools get millions more than poor ones (The Hechinger Report).

https://hechingerreport.org/new-data-even-within-the-same-district-some-wealthy-schools-getmillions-more-than-poor-ones/

 

  1. World Bank Data (2023) GDP (current US$) – United States. The World Bank. HYPERLINK “https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=US”https://data.worldbank.org/indi cator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=US
  2. World Bank Data (2023) United States. The World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/country/unitedstates iii Mitchell, T. (June 2017). The demographics of gun ownership in the U.S. Pew Research Center.

https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2017/06/22/the-demographics-of-gun-ownership/ iv Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (July 2023). How can we prevent gun violence in American schools? Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/how-can-we-preventgun-violence-in-schools/ v Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (May 2019). The impact of gun violence on children and teens. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-of-gunviolence-on-children-and-teens/ vi ibid. vii RAND. (2020, April). The effects of laws allowing armed staff in K–12 schools. RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/research/gun-policy/analysis/laws-allowing-armed-staff-in-K12-schools.html

viii OJJDP. (n.d.). Section VII: Education Initiatives and Alternative Prevention Strategies. (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Report) https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh176/files/pubs/gun_violence/sect07.html ix Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (2020, December). The danger of guns on campus. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/guns-on-campus/ x Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (May 2019). The impact of gun violence on children and teens. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-of-gunviolence-on-children-and-teens/ xi Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (July 2023). How can we prevent gun violence in American schools? Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/how-can-we-preventgun-violence-in-schools/ xii Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (May 2019). The impact of gun violence on children and teens. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-of-gunviolence-on-children-and-teens/ xiii ibid. xiv Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund. (2020, December). The danger of guns on campus. Everytown Research & Policy. https://everytownresearch.org/report/guns-on-campus/ xv FindLaw Team (June 2016) Education Funding: State and Local Sources. FindLaw. https://www/findlaw.com/education/curriculum-standards-school-funding.com xvi Mathewson T.G (October 2020) New data: Even within the same district, some wealthy schools get millions more than poor ones (The Hechinger Report). https://hechingerreport.org/new-data-evenwithin-the-same-district-some-wealthy-schools-get-millions-more-than-poor-ones/ xvii Richman, T & Crain, T.P (October 2022) Uncertified teachers filling holes in schools across the South (The Hechinger Report). https://hechingerreport.org/uncertified-teachers-filling-holes-inschools-across-the-south/ xviii Lurye, S & Griesbach, R (September 2022) Teacher shortages are real, but not for the reason you heard (The Hechinger Report). https://hechingerreport.org/teacher-shortages-are-real-but-not-for-thereason-you-heard/ xix Wolf, Z.B (September 2022) Crises converge on American Education (CNN Politics). https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/01/politics/us-education-schools-crisis-what-matters/index.html xx Mathewson T.G (October 2020) New data: Even within the same district, some wealthy schools get millions more than poor ones (The Hechinger Report). https://hechingerreport.org/new-data-evenwithin-the-same-district-some-wealthy-schools-get-millions-more-than-poor-ones/

 

Translation Educational Challenges Pakistan (Urdu)

پاکستان میں تعلیمی رسائی کو بہتر بنانے میں این جی اوز کا کردار

 

پاکستان کے تعلیمی نظام کو طویل عرصے سے متعدد چیلنجز کا سامنا رہا ہےجنہوں نے ملک کی سماجی و اقتصادی ترقی کو روکا ہے۔ پاکستان میں، 5 سے 16 سال کی عمر کے تمام بچوں کو 12 سال کی اسکولی تعلیم کا حق حاصل ہے۔ تاہم، مختلف حکومتی اقدامات جیسے کہ ‘ایجوکیشن ایمرجنسی’ پلان اور ‘پنجاب ایجوکیشن سیکٹر پلان’ کے باوجود، پاکستان کو کم شرح خواندگی، صنفی تفاوت اور ناکافی تعلیمی انفراسٹرکچر کا سامنا ہے۔اس پس منظر میں، غیر سرکاری تنظیمیں (این جی اوز) ملک بھر میں تعلیمی رسائی اور معیار کو بہتر بنانے کی کوششوں میں اہم کھلاڑی بن کر ابھری ہیں۔ اس مضمون میں پاکستان کے تعلیمی نظام کی موجودہ حالت، اہم این جی اوز کے تعاون اور ان کے اثرات کو بڑھانے کے لیے ممکنہ حکمت عملیوں کا جائزہ لیا گیا ہے۔

پاکستان میں نظام تعلیم کی موجودہ صورتحال
پاکستان کا نظام تعلیم تقریبا 260 ، 903 اداروں پر مشتمل ہے جو تقریبا 41 ملین طلباء کی خدمت کر رہے ہیں ، جن میں ایک اندازے کے مطابق 1.5 ملین اساتذہ ہیں ۔ یہ نظام بنیادی طور پر عوامی ہے ، جس میں حکومت 69% اداروں کو چلا رہی ہے ۔ ان اعداد و شمار کے باوجود ، 2023 تک خواندگی کی شرح تقریبا 62.3 ٪ پر مستحکم رہی ہے ، شہری علاقوں میں دیہی علاقوں (54%) کے مقابلے میں شرح (74%) زیادہ ہے ۔ پاکستان کے تعلیمی اعدادوشمار 2021-22 نے فنڈز کی کمی ، طلباء اور اساتذہ کے تناسب میں کمی اور بنیادی سہولیات کی کمی کو اجاگر کیا ۔
مزید برآں ، پاکستان میں ڈراپ آؤٹ کی شرح خطرناک حد تک زیادہ ہے ، خاص طور پر پرائمری اور سیکنڈری سطحوں پر ۔ کئی سماجی و اقتصادی عوامل ، جیسے غربت ، چائلڈ لیبر ، اور ثقافتی اصول ، ڈراپ آؤٹ کی اعلی شرح میں حصہ ڈالتے ہیں ۔ اسکول سے باہر بچوں کی تعداد تقریبا 26.21 ملین ہے جس کا بنیادی مطلب ہے کہ پاکستان میں 39% بچے اسکول سے باہر ہیں ۔ مزید برآں ، فرسودہ نصاب ، اساتذہ کی ناکافی تربیت ، اور سیکھنے کے وسائل کی کمی اکثر تعلیمی معیار کو خطرے میں ڈالتی ہے ۔ یہ مشکلات سیاسی بدامنی اور متضاد پالیسی نفاذ کی وجہ سے بڑھ جاتی ہیں

تعلیمی رسائی کو بہتر بنانے میں این جی اوز کا کردار
ان تعلیمی چیلنجوں کے جواب میں ، بہت سی غیر سرکاری تنظیموں (این جی اوز) نے حکومت کی طرف سے چھوڑے گئے خلا کو پر کرنے کے لیے قدم اٹھایا ہے ۔ وہ متاثر کن پروگراموں کو نافذ کرنے میں سب سے آگے ہیں جو غریب برادریوں کی ترقی کے خواہاں ہیں ۔ یہ تنظیمیں معیاری تعلیم فراہم کرنے کے لیے انتھک محنت کرتی ہیں ، خاص طور پر پسماندہ طبقات میں ۔ ان کی کوششوں میں اسکول کی تعمیر ، اسکالرشپ فنڈنگ ، اساتذہ کی تربیت ، اور جدید تعلیمی پروگراموں کی ترقی شامل ہیں ۔ پاکستان میں متعدد این جی اوز ہیں جو پاکستان میں تعلیم کی بہتری کے لیے کام کر رہی ہیں ، ان میں سے کچھ کا ذکر ذیل میں کیا گیا ہے۔

سرکردہ این جی اوز میں سے ایک دی سٹیزن فاؤنڈیشن ہے (TCF). ٹی سی ایف پاکستان کے تعلیمی شعبے میں ایک غیر سرکاری تنظیم ہے جس کی بنیاد 1995 میں رکھی گئی تھی ۔ اس کے بعد سے ، تنظیم نے پورے پاکستان میں 1,921 اسکول یونٹوں کا ایک وسیع نیٹ ورک قائم کیا ہے ، جس میں تقریبا 286,000 طلباء کو تعلیم دی گئی ہے ۔ ٹی سی ایف اسکول کم لاگت پر اعلی معیار کی تعلیم فراہم کرتے ہیں ، اس بات کو یقینی بناتے ہیں کہ کم آمدنی والے بچوں کو تعلیم تک رسائی حاصل ہو ۔ یہ ٹی سی ایف کو ملک میں کم لاگت والے رسمی اسکولوں کے سب سے بڑے نجی ملکیت والے نیٹ ورک میں سے ایک بناتا ہے ۔ یہ تنظیم صنفی مساوات پر بھی زور دیتی ہے ، جس میں اس کی تقریبا نصف طالبات خواتین ہیں ۔ اس کے جامع نقطہ نظر میں کمیونٹی کو متحرک کرنا اور والدین کی شمولیت شامل ہے ، یہ دونوں طویل مدتی تعلیمی فوائد کے لیے اہم ہیں ۔

ایک اور نمایاں این جی او ڈویلپمنٹ ان لٹریسی (ڈی آئی ایل) تنظیم ہے ۔ یہ تنظیم 2000 میں قائم کی گئی تھی اور پاکستان میں پسماندہ بچوں کو کم لاگت ، اعلی معیار کی تعلیم فراہم کر رہی ہے ۔ تنظیم کا مشن طلباء پر مرکوز ماڈل اسکولوں اور اساتذہ اور پرنسپل کے لیے اعلی معیار کی پیشہ ورانہ ترقی کے ذریعے پسماندہ طلباء ، خاص طور پر لڑکیوں کو تعلیم دینا اور بااختیار بنانا ہے ۔ ڈی آئی ایل کا وژن یہ ہے کہ پاکستان میں ہر بچے کو سماجی و اقتصادی حیثیت سے قطع نظر معیاری تعلیم تک مساوی رسائی حاصل ہو ۔ مزید برآں ، یہ تنظیم فی الحال پورے پاکستان میں 191 اسکولوں میں 61,000 سے زیادہ طلباء کو تعلیم دیتی ہے ، اور اس کے بہت سے گریجویٹ طب ، انجینئرنگ اور عوامی خدمت جیسے شعبوں میں کام کرتے ہیں ۔

زندگی ٹرسٹ پاکستان کی ایک اور این جی او ہے جو سرکاری اسکولوں کو تبدیل کرکے تعلیم کو بہتر بنانے کے لیے وقف ہے ۔ ٹرسٹ اسکول کے بنیادی ڈھانچے کو بہتر بنانے ، سیکھنے کے لیے محفوظ ماحول پیدا کرنے اور ضروری سہولیات فراہم کرنے کے لیے بھی کام کرتا ہے ۔ مزید برآں ، اس نے کراچی کے کم وسائل والے اسکولوں کو ماڈل اداروں میں تبدیل کر دیا ہے ، جیسے ایس ایم بی فاطمہ جناح گورنمنٹ اسکول اور خاتون پاکستان گورنمنٹ گرلز اسکول ، جس نے ان کے بنیادی ڈھانچے اور تعلیمی معیار کو نمایاں طور پر بہتر بنایا ہے ۔ ان اقدامات کے علاوہ زندگی ٹرسٹ لائف اسکلز بیسڈ ایجوکیشن (ایل ایس بی ای) جیسے جامع تعلیمی پروگرام چلاتا ہے جو طلباء کو بدسلوکی اور صحت کے مسائل سے خود کو بچانے کے لیے ضروری مہارتیں فراہم کرتا ہے ۔ یہ ٹرسٹ مجموعی ترقی کو فروغ دینے کے لیے آرٹ ، موسیقی اور کھیلوں جیسی مختلف قسم کی غیر نصابی سرگرمیاں بھی فراہم کرتا ہے ۔

چیلنجز اور آگے کا راستہ
غیر سرکاری تنظیموں کے اہم تعاون کے باوجود ، بہت سے چیلنجز باقی ہیں ۔ اسکیل ایبلٹی سب سے اہم مسائل میں سے ایک ہے ۔ اگرچہ پاکستان میں کام کرنے والی این جی اوز نے قابل ذکر کامیابی حاصل کی ہے ، لیکن ان کی رسائی ان بچوں کی بڑی تعداد کے مقابلے میں محدود ہے جو ابھی تک اسکول نہیں جا رہے ہیں ۔ ان اقدامات کو بڑھانے کے لیے اہم مالیاتی سرمایہ کاری ، لاجسٹک پلاننگ اور حکومت اور نجی شعبے کے درمیان تعاون کی ضرورت ہوتی ہے ۔

ایک اور چیلنج پائیداری کا ہے ۔ بہت سے این جی اوز کے منصوبے ڈونر فنڈنگ پر بہت زیادہ انحصار کرتے ہیں ، جو غیر متوقع ہو سکتے ہیں ۔ طویل مدتی پائیداری خود کفیل ماڈلز کی ترقی کی ضرورت ہے ، جیسے اسکولوں کی کمیونٹی کی ملکیت اور آمدنی پیدا کرنے والی سرگرمیاں جو تعلیمی اقدامات کی حمایت کرتی ہیں ۔ مزید برآں ، تمام اسٹیک ہولڈرز کے درمیان بہتر تال میل کی ضرورت ہے ۔ حکومت ، این جی اوز اور نجی شعبے کو ایک مربوط حکمت عملی بنانے کے لیے تعاون کرنا چاہیے۔

نتیجہ
پاکستان میں تعلیمی رسائی کو بہتر بنانے میں غیر سرکاری تنظیموں کے تعاون کو بڑھا چڑھا کر نہیں دکھایا جا سکتا ۔ شہریوں کی فاؤنڈیشن ، خواندگی میں ترقی ، اور زندگی ٹرسٹ جیسی تنظیموں نے ملک کی سب سے کمزور آبادی کو معیاری تعلیم فراہم کرنے کے لیے قابل ستائش کوششیں کی ہیں ۔ تاہم ، عالمگیر تعلیم کے حصول کے لیے تمام فریقوں کی ٹھوس کوششوں کی ضرورت ہے ۔ اس میں کامیاب ماڈلز کی توسیع ، پائیداری کو یقینی بنانا اور تعاون کی حوصلہ افزائی شامل ہے ۔ ان چیلنجوں سے نمٹنے کے ذریعے ، پاکستان بہتر مستقبل کی راہ ہموار کرتے ہوئے ، سب کو معیاری تعلیم فراہم کرنے کے اپنے ہدف کے قریب پہنچ سکتا ہے ۔آخر میں ، پاکستان میں تعلیمی اصلاحات کا سفر بلا شبہ پیچیدہ اور مشکل ہے ، لیکن این جی اوز کی مسلسل کوششوں اور معاشرے کے تمام شعبوں کے اجتماعی عزم کے ساتھ ، یہ قابل حصول ہے ۔ پاکستان کا مستقبل اس کے بچوں کی تعلیم پر منحصر ہے ، اور اس بات کو یقینی بنانے کے لیے ہر ممکن کوشش کی جانی چاہیے کہ کوئی بھی بچہ پیچھے نہ رہے ۔

 

Written and Translated by Mahnoor Ali from [https://brokenchalk.org/the-role-of-ngos-in-improving-access-to-education-in-pakistan/]

 

 

 

 

References

 

Abbasi, K. (2024, January 23). Govt turns its back on education sector. DAWN.COM. https://www.dawn.com/news/1807937

Ahmad, H., Fatima, N., & Nazeer, A. (2023). ROLE OF NGO’S IN PAKISTAN. International Journal of Social Sciences Bulletin, 1(1). https://ijssb.org/index.php/IJSSB/article/view/13

Education Program – The Citizens Foundation (TCF). (2022, October 12). The Citizens Foundation (TCF). https://www.tcf.org.pk/education-programme/

Government of the Pubjab. (n.d.). Punjab Education Sector Plan. https://schools.punjab.gov.pk/system/files/Punjab%20Education%20Sector%20Plan%20(2019-20%20to%202023-24).pdf

Halai, A., & Durrani, N. (2021). School education system in Pakistan. In Global education systems (pp. 665–693). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0032-9_17

Ministry of federal education and professional training. (n.d.). Malala Fund welcomes Pakistan’s new plan to address its national education crisis [Press release]. https://www.mofept.gov.pk/NewsDetail/MWNmNTA3ZTYtYTU3ZS00NDA0LWIwOTQtMTZiZjNhNjlmMzJj

Our impact — developments in literacy. (n.d.). Developments in Literacy. https://www.dil.org/our-impact/index

School reform | Revamping learning | Zindagi Trust – Non-Profit Organization. (n.d.). https://www.zindagitrust.org/school-reform

 

 

(Hindi) Educational Challenges in Palestine

एक टिप्पणी छोड़ें

द्वारा फोिो जॉजज फर्ाांडीज सालास अर्स्पप्लैश पर शशक्षा एक मार्व अधिकार है जो सभी व्यक्तियों के शलए सलभ होर्ा चाटहएु , चाहे उर्की पररक्स्पितियाां कुछ भी हों। फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें, शशक्षा की गणवत्ता और पहु ुांच चल रहे कब्जे और उपतर्वेशीकरण, राजर्ीतिक अक्स्पिरिा और आधिजक चर्ौतियों से काफी प्रभाववि हु ुई है। यह लेख फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें शशक्षा की विजमार् क्स्पिति पर चचाज करेगा, शशक्षा की गणवत्ता और पहु ुांच पर ध्यार् क़ेंटिि करेगा। लेख उर् चर्ौतियों का भी ु पिा लगाएगा जो छात्रों और शशक्षकों का सामर्ा करिे हैं और फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें शशक्षा की गणवत्ता और पहु ुांच म़ें सिार के शलए लागु की गई कू ुछ पहलों की जाचां करिे ह।ैं फफशलस्पिीर्ी क्षेत्रों म़ें वेस्पि बकैं और गाजा पट्िी शाशमल हैं, जो भौगोशलक रूप से एक दसरे से अलग हैं। ू फफशलस्पिीर्ी राष्ट्रीय प्राधिकरण (पीएर्ए) वेस्पि बकैं म़ें शशक्षा प्रणाली के शलए क्जम्मेदार है, जबफक हमास गाजा म़ें शशक्षा प्रणाली को तर्यांत्रत्रि करिा है। वपछले 27 वर्षों म़ें, फफशलस्पिीर्ी शशक्षकों को इजरायल के कब्जे के कारण गांभीर समस्पयाओां को दर करर्ा पडा है ू – क्जसम़ें शैक्षणणक सांस्पिार्ों के लगािार बांद होर्े और पाठ्यपस्पिकों और अन्य शैक्षक्षक सामधियों पर प्रतिबांि लगार्े िक सीशमि र्हीां है। फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें ु छह से पांिह वर्षज की आय के बच्चों के शलए शशक्षा अतर्वायज और मु फ्ि है। ु 2018 म़ें यतर्सेफ र्े बिाया ू फक फफशलस्पिीर् राज्य म़ें, 95.4 प्रतिशि बच्चों को औपचाररक शशक्षा म़ें र्ामाांफकि फकया गया िा[2]। हालाांफक, फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें स्पकूल के सभी बच्चों म़ें से लगभग 25 प्रततशत िड़के और 7 प्रततशत िड़फकय ां 15 स ि की उम्र के ब द स्कू ि छोड़ देती हैं[3]। इसके अि व , 6 से 15 वर्ष की आय के बीच की ववकि ांगत ु व िे 22.5 प्रततशत िड़कों और 30 प्रततशत िड़फकयों ने कभी स्कू ि में द खिि नह ां लिय है[4]। यह बढ़ती गर बी और फिलिस्तीन पर इजर यि के कब्जे के क रण है, जजसक बच्चों के लिए उपिब्ध लशि की पहुांच और गणवत्त पर महत्वपु णष प्रभ व पड़त है।ू लशि की गणवत्त ु फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें शशक्षा की गणवत्ता चल रहे कब्जेु , उपतर्वेशीकरण और राजर्ीतिक अक्स्पिरिा से बहुि प्रभाववि हुई है। इजरायल के कब्जे के पहले 10 वर्षों के दौरार्, फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें कोई र्या स्पकूल र्हीां बर्ाया गया िा, क्जससे इस क्षेत्र म़ें शैक्षक्षक सवविाओां के ववस्पिार म़ें काफी बािा उत्पन्र् हु ुई, और इसके पररणामस्पवरूप बढ़िी आबादी के ववपरीि उपलब्ि शशक्षकों की सांख्या म़ें धगरावि आई। शैक्षक्षक सवविाओां की ु सांख्या और इस प्रकार शैक्षक्षक कमजचाररयों की कमी के कारण, कक्षाओां म़ें एक ही कक्षा म़ें 40 से 60 छात्रों के साि भीडभाड हो गई है, क्जससे शशक्षकों के शलए प्रत्येक छात्र को व्यक्तिगि ध्यार् और सहायिा प्रदार् करर्ा मक्ककल हो गया है[ु 6]। इसके पररणामस्पवरूप छात्र वपछड सकिे हैं और अपर्े साधियों के साि बर्े रहर्े के शलए सांघर्षज कर सकिे हैं। सांयति राष्ट्र शैक्षक्षकु , वैज्ञातर्क और साांस्पकृतिक सांगठर् की एक ररपोिज के अर्सार[ु 7], सांसािर्ों और सवविाओां की कमी फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें शशक्षा के सामर्े आर्े वाली मु ख्य चु र्ौतियों म़ें से एक है। कई स्पकु ूलों म़ें पाठ्यपस्पिकोंु , कांप्यिर और प्रयोगशालाओां जैसी बू तर्यादी सु वविाओां की कमी हैु , और कई शशक्षक ठीक से प्रशशक्षक्षि र्हीां हैं और आितर्क शशक्षण ववधियों और िकर्ीकों िक उर्की पहु ुांच र्हीां है। िर् की कमी और पस्पिकों और शैक्षक्षक सामधियों पर प्रतिबांि लगार्े से स्पकु ूल पस्पिकालयों म़ें छात्रों के शलए उपलब्ि ु सांसािर्ों को सीशमि फकया जािा है[8]। छात्रों के सामाक्जक और साांस्पकृतिक ववकास के शलए आवकयक कई पाठ्येिर गतिववधियों को इजरायल के अधिकाररयों द्वारा प्रतिबांधिि कर टदया गया है। सवविाओां की इस ु कमी के कारण, पवी यरुशलम म़ें लगभग आिे फफशलस्पिीर्ी बच्चों को तर्जी या अर्ौपचाररकू शैक्षणणक सांस्पिार्ों म़ें भाग लेर्े के शलए मजबर फकया जािा है।ू

फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें शशक्षा की गणवत्ता भी इस क्षेत्र म़ें राजर्ीतिक क्स्पिरिा और सु रक्षा की कमी से प्रभाववि है। ु सेव द धचल्ड्रर् (2020) की एक ररपोिज के अर्सार[ु 10]चल रहे सांघर्षज और राजर्ीतिक अक्स्पिरिा के पररणामस्पवरूप शैक्षणणक कैल़ेंडर म़ें बार-बार स्पकूल बांद हो रहे हैं और व्यविार् पैदा हो रहे हैं, क्जससे छात्र कक्षा के मल्ड्यवार् समय से चू क जािे हैं और अपर्ी पढ़ाई म़ें वपछड जािे हैं। फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें लगभग ू आिा शमशलयर् बच्चों को गणवत्तापु णज शशक्षा प्राप्ि करर्े के शलए मार्वीय सहायिा की आवकयकिा ू है[11]। गाजा पट्िी, और वेस्पि बकैं के लगािार बांद हैं – पवी यरुशलम सटहि ू – इजरायल द्वारा टहसां क हमलों के दौरार्, दैतर्क गतिववधियों और स्पवास्प्य देखभाल, पार्ी और शशक्षा जैसी आवकयक सेवाओां िक फकसी भी भौतिक पहुांच को प्रतिबांधिि करर्ा। बच्चे भी तर्यशमि रूप से टहसांा और िमकी के डर का अर्भव करिे हैं तयोंफक उन्ह़ें उच्च जोणखम वाले क्षेत्रों म़ें क्स्पिि स्पकु ूलों म़ें जार्े के शलए अतसर चौफकयों से गजरर्ा पडिा है या बक्स्पियों द्वारा आवागमर् करर्ाु पडिा है[13]। लशि की पहुांच फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें शशक्षा की पहुांच कई कारकों से प्रभाववि होिी है। तर्कि पवज म़ें फफशलस्पिीर्ी शरणाधिजयों के ू शलए सांयति राष्ट्र राहि और कायज एज़ेंसी (यु एर्आरडब्ल्ड्यू ए) (ू 2021) की एक ररपोिज के अर्सार[ु 14], पहुांच को प्रभाववि करर्े वाले मख्य कारकों म़ें से एक वेस्पि बकैंु और गाजा के बीच भौतिक अलगाव है। यह अलगाव छात्रों के शलए दो क्षत्रेों के बीच स्पिार्ाांिररि करर्ा मक्ककल बर्ािा है और इसके पररणामस्पवरूप ु छात्र शैक्षक्षक अवसरों और सांसािर्ों से चक सकिे हैं जो केवल एक क्षेू त्र म़ें उपलब्ि ह।ैं बच्चों को आमिौर पर स्पकूल जार्े के शलए लांबी दरी िय करर्ी पडिी है। शू आफि शरणािी शशववर म़ें रहर्े वाले अपर्े ु 10 वर्षीय बेिे के बारे म़ें बाि करर्े वाले एक मािा-वपिा र्े कहा फक उर्का बेिा £ 85 की माशसक लागि के

शलए स्पकूल से आर्े-जार्े म़ें हर टदर् चार घांिे त्रबिािा है, जबफक उसका दसरा बच्चा िीर् घांिे की यात्रा ू करिा है एक अलग स्पकूल[15]। जैसा फक पहले चचाज की गई िी, शशक्षा िक पहुांच पर इजरायल के कब्जे का प्रभाव भी एक महत्वपणज कारक है। रेड क्रॉस की अांिराजष्ट्रीय सशमति (आईसीआरसी) (ू 2021) की एक ररपोिज के अर्सार[ु 16], छात्रों और शशक्षकों को अतसर चौफकयों, बािाओां और अन्य बािाओां का सामर्ा करर्ा पडिा है। कुछ मामलों म़ें, सैन्य अशभयार्ों के दौरार् स्पकूलों को बांद या र्ष्ट्ि कर टदया गया है, क्जसके पररणामस्पवरूप छात्रों और शशक्षकों का ववस्पिापर् हुआ है।

रामल्ड्लाह के एक स्पकूल म़ें फफशलस्पिीर्ी लडफकयाां। – समर हज़बौर् द्वारा फोिो, UNWomen फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें आधिजक क्स्पिति भी शशक्षा की पहुांच को प्रभाववि करिी है। यतर्सेफ (ू 2018) के अर्सारु , कई पररवार शशक्षा से जडी लागिोंु , जसै े पररवहर्, स्पकूल की आपति जू और वदी को वहर् करर्े के शलए सांघर्षज करिे हैं[17]। इसके पररणामस्पवरूप बच्चे स्पकूल जार्े म़ें असमिज हो सकिे हैं या जल्ड्दी बाहर तर्कल सकिे हैं। ववत्तीय कटठर्ाइयााँ फफशलस्पिीर्ी बच्चों के स्पकूल छोडर्े के प्रािशमक कारणों म़ें से एक ह।ैं हालाांफक, फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें बच्चों को कई अन्य गांभीर मद्दों का भी सामर्ा करर्ा पडिा है जैसे फक बाल श्रम (ु 10-17 वर्षज की आय के बीच के बच्चों की कु ुल सांख्या का 3% भगिार् और अवैितर्क श्रम कायज करिे हु ुए पाए गए), कम उम्र म़ें वववाह (2018 म़ें पांजीकृि सभी वववाहों म़ें से, 20% 18 वर्षज से कम उम्र की लडफकयों के

िे), और कारावास (2019 म़ें, इजरायल की जेलों म़ें 18 वर्षज से कम उम्र के बच्चों को टहरासि म़ें लेर्े के

889 मामले सामर्े आए[18]।

इसके अलावा, शशक्षा िक पहुांच लडफकयों और ववकलाांग बच्चों के शलए ववशेर्ष रूप से चर्ौिीपु णज है। हालाांफक ू हाल के वर्षों म़ें कुछ प्रगति हुई है, साांस्पकृतिक और सामाक्जक बािाएां कई लडफकयों को स्पकूल जार्े से रोकिी हैं। यतर्सेफ के अर्ू सारु , फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें प्रािशमक शशक्षा म़ें लडफकयों के शलए शद्ि र्ामाांकर् दर ु

96% है, जबफक लडकों के शलए 98% है[19]। इसका एक उदाहरण जल्ड्दी वववाह है जैसा फक ऊपर प्रकाश डाला गया है। 2018 म़ें ररपोिज फकए गए 20% वववाहों के ववपरीि, 18 वर्षज से कम उम्र की लडफकयाां शाशमल िीां, और इर्म़ें से केवल 1% वववाहों म़ें 18 वर्षज से कम आय के लडके शाशमल िे। यह लडकों और पु रुर्षों ु की िलर्ा म़ें मटहलाओां और लडफकयों की शशक्षा को टदए गए महत्व की कमी को दशाजिा हैु , जो माध्यशमक और उच्च शशक्षा प्राप्ि करर्े के शलए प्रमख उम्र म़ें शादी करर्े और पररवार शु रू करर्े के शलए सामाक्जक ु और पाररवाररक दबाव का सामर्ा कर रहे होंग।े इसके अलावा, ववकलाांग बच्चों को शशक्षा प्राप्ि करर्े म़ें

कई बािाओां का सामर्ा करर्ा पडिा है, क्जसम़ें ववशेर्ष सवविाओां और प्रशशक्षक्षि शशक्षकों की कमी भी ु शाशमल है। लशि की गणवत्त और पहु ुांच में सध र के प्रय सु फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें शशक्षा की गणवत्ता और पहु ुांच म़ें सिार के प्रयासों र्े शैक्षक्षक सांसािर्ों िक पहु ुांच बढ़ार्े और पररवारों पर ववत्तीय बोझ को कम करर्े पर ध्यार् क़ेंटिि फकया है। फफशलस्पिीर्ी शशक्षा और उच्च शशक्षा मांत्रालय की एक ररपोिज के अर्सार[ु 20], सरकार र्े मफ्ि शशक्षा प्रदार् करर्े और छात्रवु वत्त और ववत्तीय ृ सहायिा िक पहुांच बढ़ार्े के उद्देकय से र्ीतियों को लाग फकया है। गैर सरकारी सांगठर्ों और अांिराजष्ट्रीय ू सांगठर्ों र्े भी र्ए स्पकूलों के ववकास और मौजदा स्पकू ूलों के र्वीर्ीकरण के साि-साि शशक्षकों के शलए शशक्षण सामिी और प्रशशक्षण प्रदार् करर्े के शलए सहायिा प्रदार् की है। यद्यवप सामाक्जक और राजर्ीतिक मद्दों से तर्पिर्े के शलए अभी भी एक लांबा रास्पिा िय करर्ा है जो फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें बच्चों के ु शलए शशक्षा िक पहुांच म़ें बािा डाल रहे हैं और उर्की सरक्षा को खिरा हैु , कम से कम आधिजक सांघर्षों का समािार् खोजर्े के शलए कदम उठाए जा रहे हैं।

 

अांि म़ें, फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें शशक्षा की गणवत्ता और पहु ुांच चल रहे सांघर्षज, राजर्ीतिक अक्स्पिरिा और आधिजक चर्ौतियों से काफी प्रभाववि है। फफशलस्पिीर्ी छात्रों और शशक्षकों को कई चु र्ौतियों का सामर्ा करर्ा पडिा ु है जो उन्ह़ें प्राप्ि होर्े वाली शशक्षा की गणवत्ता को ु प्रभाववि करिे हैं, क्जसम़ें सांसािर्ों और सवविाओां की ु कमी, उच्च छात्र-से-शशक्षक अर्पािु , बार-बार स्पकूल बांद होर्ा और शैक्षणणक जीवर् म़ें व्यविार् और उर्की शारीररक सरक्षा के शलए सामान्य खिरा शाशमल है। यद्यवप आधिजक मु द्दों से तर्पिर्े और शैक्षणणक ु सांस्पिार्ों के शलए उधचि बतर्यादी ढाांचे के ववकास के प्रयास फकए जा रहे हैंु , लेफकर् फफशलस्पिीर् के चल रहे उपतर्वेशीकरण से सांबांधिि सरक्षा खिरा और मु द्दे इस क्षेत्र म़ें स्पिायी राजर्ीतिक क्स्पिरिा की उपलक्ब्ि ु िक बर्े रह़ेंगे।

ग्रांथ सची:ू

  • अब-ूदहोउु , आई (1996)। कब्जे और फफशलस्पिीर्ी राष्ट्रीय प्राधिकरण के िहि फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें स्पकूल। फफशलस्पिीर्-इज़राइल जर्जल ऑफ पॉशलटितस, इकोर्ॉशमतस एांड कल्ड्चर, 3 (1)। उपलब्ि

है: https://pij.org/articles/566/schools-in-palestine-under-the-occupation-and-thepalestinian-national-authority

  • रेड क्रॉस की अांिराजष्ट्रीय सशमति। (2021). ICRC वावर्षजक ररपोिज 2021. यहाां उपलब्ि है: https://library.icrc.org/library/docs/DOC/icrc-annual-report-2021-2.pdf
  • शशक्षा और उच्च शशक्षा मांत्रालय। शशक्षा क्षेत्र रणर्ीतिक योजर्ा 2017-2022। उपलब्ि

है: https://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/sites/default/files/ressources/palestine_educati on_sector_strategic_plan_2017-2022.pdf

  • ओसीएचए। अधिकृि फफशलस्पिीर्ी क्षेत्र: मार्वीय आवकयकिाओां का अवलोकर् 2018, र्वांबर 2017।

उपलब्ि है: https://reliefweb.int/report/occupied-palestinian-territory/occupiedpalestinian-territory-humanitarian-needs-overview-2

  • फफशलस्पिीर्ी क़ेंिीय साांक्ख्यकी ब्यरो। (ू 2020). फफशलस्पिीर्. उपलब्ि

है: https://www.pcbs.gov.ps/portals/_pcbs/PressRelease/Press_En_childDay2020E.pd f

  • बच्चों को बचाओ। खिरा हमारी वास्पिववकिा है: कब्जे वाले फफशलस्पिीर्ी क्षेत्र के वेस्पि बकैं म़ें सांघर्षज और शशक्षा पर कब्जे का प्रभाव। से शलया

गया: https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/document/danger-our-realityimpact-conflict-and-occupation-education-west-bank-occupied-palestinian/

  • शेरवडु , एच (2010)। पूवी यरुशलम म़ें फफशलस्पिीर्ी बच्चों को कक्षाओां की कमी का सामर्ा करर्ा पड रहा है। यहाां उपलब्ि

है: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/aug/24/palestinians-east-jerusalemeducation।

 

  1. अब-ू दहोउु , आई (1996)। कब्जे और फफशलस्पिीर्ी राष्ट्रीय प्राधिकरण के िहि फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें स्पकूल। फफशलस्पिीर्-इज़राइल जर्जल ऑफ पॉशलटितस, इकोर्ॉशमतस एांड कल्ड्चर, 3 (1)। पर उपलब्ि: https://pij.org/articles/566/schools-in-palestine-under-the-occupation-and-the-palestiniannational-authority
  2. यूतर्सेफ़। फफशलस्पिीर् राज्य: स्पकूल से बाहर के बच्चे। पर उपलब्ि: https://www.unicef.org/mena/reports/state-palestine-out-school-children [3] देखर्ा फुिर्ोि 2.
  3. फुिर्ोि 2 देख़ें।
  4. फुिर्ोि 1 देख़ें
  5. फुिर्ोि 1 देख़ें
  6. यर्ेस्पको। (ू 2020). फफशलस्पिीर् म़ें शशक्षा. से उपलब्ि है https://www.unesco.org/en/countries/ps [8] फुिर्ोि 1 देख़ें
  7. शेरवडु , एच (2010)। पूवी यरुशलम म़ें फफशलस्पिीर्ी बच्चों को कक्षाओां की कमी का सामर्ा करर्ा पड रहा है। पर

उपलब्ि: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/aug/24/palestinians-east-jerusalem-education.

  1. बच्चों को बचाओ। खिरा हमारी वास्पिववकिा है: कब्जे वाले फफशलस्पिीर्ी क्षेत्र के वेस्पि बैंक म़ें सांघर्षज और शशक्षा पर कब्जे का प्रभाव। से शलया

गया: https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/document/danger-our-reality-impact-conflict-and-occupation-education-west-bankoccupied-palestinian/

  1. ओसीएचए। अधिकृि फफशलस्पिीर्ी क्षेत्र: मार्वीय आवकयकिाओां का अवलोकर् 2018, र्वांबर 2017। पर

उपलब्ि: https://reliefweb.int/report/occupied-palestinian-territory/occupied-palestinian-territory-humanitarian-needs-overview-2

  1. फुिर्ोि 2 देख़ें
  2. फुिर्ोि 2 देख़ें
  3. यएर्आरडब्ल्ड्यू ए। (ू 2021). वावर्षजक पररचालर् ररपोिज 2021. से शलया गया: https://www.unrwa.org/resources/about-unrwa/annualoperational-report-2021
  4. फुिर्ोि 9 देख़ें
  5. रेड क्रॉस की अांिराजष्ट्रीय सशमति। (2021). ICRC वावर्षजक ररपोिज 2021. पर उपलब्ि: https://library.icrc.org/library/docs/DOC/icrc-annual-report-

2021-2.pdf

  1. फुिर्ोि 2 देख़ें
  2. फफशलस्पिीर्ी क़ेंिीय साांक्ख्यकी ब्यूरो। (2020). फफशलस्पिीर्. पर

उपलब्ि: https://www.pcbs.gov.ps/portals/_pcbs/PressRelease/Press_En_childDay2020E.pdf [19] फुिर्ोि 2 देख़ें

[20] शशक्षा और उच्च शशक्षा मांत्रालय। शशक्षा क्षेत्र रणर्ीतिक योजर्ा 2017-2022। पर

उपलब्ि: https://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/sites/default/files/ressources/palestine_education_sector_strategic_plan_2017-2022.pdf

 

Silenced Erasure of the Kurdish Language in Turkey’s Education System

Introduction 

Education is a basic human right. It is a pivotal tool for both the individual and the collective. It provides a base for self-fulfilment, self-development, and a brighter future; moreover, it offers [marginalized] communities a medium to preserve their culture, thus language, practices, art, literature, and history. Schooling has become a means of socialization, cultural transmission, and identity formation. Given such functions, however, education may become a propagandistic tool, a medium for an end far away from ethical values. For instance, it may transmit unity messages through a revision of history, like in the case of some Cyprian schoolbooks i Furthermore, education reproduces economic, cultural, and social inequalities; it is a primary mechanism of the network of power used by the State to punish, discipline, and legitimize. This paper focuses on such aspects of Turkey’s education system. In particular, the essay deals with Kurdish linguistic discrimination in Turkish schooling through specific legislative measures. Kurdish is an Indo-European language, related to Persian, and belongs to a different linguistic family tree from Turkish. There are two primary dialects of Kurdish: Sorani and Kurmanj ii. It is the fortieth most spoken language worldwide and the first in Kurdistan, a geo-cultural region divided between four countries ii. 

Methodology 

The essay will start by explaining the history of the Kurdish people. It will mention the first settlements in the area, how Kurds lived under the Ottoman Empire, and the changes that First World War brought. Then, the paper will explore the life of the Kurdish population in Turkey post-Lausanne, and highlight the discriminatory legislative measures taken to ensure internal cohesion. Finally, the essay will explain the consequences of such “linguicide”iii on education.  

The paper is based on academic manuscripts, national newspaper articles, a qualitative interview, and blogs.  

This essay focuses exclusively on discrimination faced by the Kurdish population; however, it is important to mark how other Muslim minorities are negatively impacted by such nationalistic policies.  

 

A Look At The Past 

Kurdistan has the nickname of “invisible nationiv:” it is there, it exists, but it doesn’t have any tangible geo-political borders. This section will focus on such invisibility. 

Kurdish people have lived in Central Anatolia since the Middle Ages when the first tribe arrived in 1184v.Then, three centuries later, they founded the first large settlement named Kürtler, in proximity to modern-day Ankaravi When the Ottomans reached the region, they formed an alliance with Kurdish groups and the latter worked as local officials and informators during the Battle of Chaldiran. Due to their great involvement in belligerent actions, the Ottoman Empire rewarded the tribes. The Kurds benefitted from fiscal exceptions, and the recognition of a semi-autonomous status, entailing virtual independence and the maintenance of the Kurdish tribal organizative systemviiOttomans and Kurds’ relationship changed in the 1830s with the start of a centralization process, resulting in the weakening of the Kurdish semi-autonomous status and tribal system.  

 

During the First World War, Kurds’ dissatisfaction with the Empire resulted in a series of uprisings. The relationship with the Ottomans deteriorated as the Kurdish people wanted more autonomy and aimed at the creation of a Kurdish state. They fought the Ottomans encouraged by the British and the Russians who shared the idea of Kurdish independence. When the war ended, the Kurds should have received an independent state, according to the Treaty of Sevrès which promoted self-determination and autonomy for nationalities under the Ottomans. However, the Kurdish population was split into 4 States: Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkeyviii. 

Kurds in Turkey 

The Treaty of Lausanne officialised the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and the partition of the Kurdish population. The new Turkish leader, Mustafa Atatürk promised to treat the Kurdish minority equal to the Turkish population. However, the Treaty itself recognized only non-Muslim minorities in Turkish territories: Greeks, Jews, and Armenians ix; as a result, the Kurdish population was left out, without any concrete protectionsxand, despite the promises,  the Turkish President promoted a process of assimilation and homogenization which entailed territorial reforms and the removal of the “Kurds race”xi. The government aimed at canceling any trace of multi-ethnicityxii as it represented a threat to internal unity. Inhabitants of the Dersim region refused the new policies and did not pay taxes; thus, it became Turkey’s “…most significant interior problem…”xiii.The government levied new laws to contain the threat. They involved displacement: Dersim kids were forced to attend schools outside their native region and Dersim authorities were free to resettle the residentsxiv. Moreover, in the Eastern part of the country, Turkish troops led a massacre that killed over 4000 civiliansxv.  

 

Kurdish: a forbidden language 

“New-born” Turkey made cultural homogenization and assimilation its goal. Everybody must be of Turkish heritage, and, in case this is not plausible, everybody must act like a Turk, marry a Turk, and speak like a Turk. In 1924, the Turkish government banned the Kurdish language, Kurdish dictionaries, and the words “Kurdistan” and “Kurds”xvi. The government also kept the schooling rate low in Kurdish regions in fear of future independence ideas and national consciousnessxvii. Turkish nation-building went through processes of forced standardization, cultural assimilation, and consequent domestic and international legislative measures to legitimize the subordination of non-Turkish languages. For instance, domestically, the Constitution proclaims Turkish as the mother tongue and the official language of the State; internationally, Turkey expressed doubts regarding Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights which states that individuals belonging to minorities should not be refused the right to speak their language, perform cultural activities, and profess their religionxviii. Furthermore, it had some reservations regarding articles of the UN Convention Right of Child proclaiming that kids from minority groups have the right to preserve their cultural identityxix. Finally, the country refused to sign the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages which states that minorities have the right to learn and speak their first languagexx. 

 

Linguistic homogenization aims to awaken a sense of nation, identity, and community within people living in the same State. Such a strategy is implemented through education; thus, it is no surprise that Turkey follows a one-language instruction policy, prohibiting public schools from teaching Kurdish as a native language. As a matter of fact, Article forty-two of the Constitution states that “no language other than Turkish may be taught as a mother tongue to Turkish citizens at any institutions of training or education.” Moreover, in 1980, following the military coup, the government banned the usage of Kurdish in public and private life. Despite the prohibitions, teachers unofficially and secretively still used Kurdish in madrasah institutionsxxi. The ban on domestic usage would be lifted in 1991xxii. Turkey implemented positive education reforms in the following decades, attentive to minority rightsxxiii. For instance, the first Kurdish language class is organized at the University in Mardin. Moreover, fourth-grade-and-up schools offered Kurdish lessons as electivesxxiv.  

The status of the Kurdish language changed after the 2016 military coup when Kurdish media programs were terminated, and Kurdish cultural institutions, and NGOs were shut down. Furthermore, the government closed private schools teaching in Kurdish and language departments of universitiesxxv. Such legislative and governmental adversity towards the Kurdish language led to popular aggressions. In 2019, an elder couple was expelled from an hospital after they spoke Kurdish to each other; in 2020, several seasonal workers were killed because of “kurdophobia” a couple of years prior, an elementary school kid was beaten up for speaking his language with their family on the phone xxvi. 

 

Education, Employment and Language 

The consideration of the Kurdish language held by the Turkish State “…as a divisive, existential threat rather than an instrument of unity…”xxvii has terrible effects on the realm of education. 

Kurds do not have the right to learn their native language as a subject or employ it as a medium to study other educational topics. In some Eastern parts of Turkey, like Diyarbakir, parents oppose the governmental policies and encourage their children to “academically” learn Kurdish. For instance, a human-right activist from that area sent his child to a Zarokistan preschool xxviii. Moreover, in the Eastern and Southeastern parts of the country, where the majority of the Kurdish population resides, people still speak the vernacular at home. Researchers identified several issues connected to the erasure of the Kurdish language in schoolsxxix. Firstly, a linguistic -and legislative- barrier separated Turkish-speaking teachers and Kurdish-speaking pupils. They do not understand each other, forcing the former to stay quiet in class as they could not express themselves in the correct languagexxx. Secondly, Kurdish students usually learn how to read and write and develop literary skills, and comprehension later than their counterparts xxxi. They are generally made to fail and, thus, repeat the grade. Those who have to repeat several years tend to develop a negative view of schooling and drop outxxxii. According to Balkan and Cilasunxxxiii, Kurds have a lower rate of finishing high school studies than their Turkish counterparts, and even less probabilities of achieving a bachelor’s degree or higher education. Quitting school before completion leads to unemployment and poverty, hence “uneducated” people are employed as “low-skilled,” unspecialized workers. My interviewee identified two different job paths for Kurdish and Turkish people. The latter tend to work in more mentally draining fields; whereas, the former are employed in physical fields such as construction, and agriculture. Another disadvantage that Kurdish people face is their place of living as location correlates with employment: people living in urban areas experience better labour market outcomes. Turkish urban areas tend to be populated by Turks, whereas the Kurdish population tend to reside in rural locationsxxxiv. Education and location come together and created disadvantageous circumstances for the Kurdish people in the workplace Kurdish people tend to be unemployment longer than their Turkish counterparts xxxv.  

 

The subordination of the Kurdish language leads to catastrophic consequences in the educational dimension. As a matter of fact, such linguistic -and cultural- discrimination measures create a hostile learning environment, and the school becomes an oppression site, instead of a liberation force. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights proclaims that “everyone has the right to education” and the Turkish Constitution declares that “no one shall be deprived of the right of education;” however, various factors interfere between Kurdish students and the achievement of education. The Turkish nation-building project stand on “othering” processes, thus on dividing citizens with Turkish heritage from citizens belonging to ethnic minorities by implementing strategies to standardize the former and forcing the latter to adjust their language and culture to the finely crafted norm. Ethnic minorities, including Kurdish people, hence, become an obstacle to a strong national sentiment, and education becomes a weapon, another mechanism through which dissolving multi-ethnicity by reproducing the language everybody must speak and the culture everybody must adhere to. Schooling, however, should not be an aggressive weapon, but rather an emancipation tool for the individual and the community. Kurdish people do not benefit from education and do not have the same access to higher studies as Turkish people. It is important to implement policies that will positively impact marginalized groups’ schooling rates which will, eventually, lead to a betterment in future opportunities.  

 

Conclusion 

The essay delved into linguistic discrimination towards Kurdish people in scholastic environments. Language represents a pivotal tool for creating internal cohesion and a shared identity, and history, thus, the emphasis of Turkish authorities on the realization of linguistic homologation within the national borders. However, the legislative measures taken to achieve such a goal negatively impact learning-age children. As a matter of fact, despite the prohibitions, families still prefer to communicate in Kurdish and kids do not understand Turkish when starting the first grade; as a result, a student with a Kurdish background will face more obstacles than their Turkish counterparts, leading them to develop a negative view of education and quitting school.  

It is pivotal to tackle this issue, internationally and domestically, to ensure that 1) Kurdish-heritage kids have the same opportunities as Turkish-heritage kids and 2) no erasure of the Kurdish language is carried out. 

REFERENCES

i Eriksen, Thomas Hylland. Small Places, Large Issues: An Introduction to Social and Cultural Anthropology. London: Plutopress, (1995) 2015. 

ii Hassanpour, Amir, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, and Michael Chyet. The Non-Education of Kurds: A Kurdish Perspective. International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift Für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale de L’Education 42 (4): 368. 1996 

iii Idem, 369. 

iv Torelli, Stefano. Kurdistan La Nazione Invisibile. Milano: Mondadori, 2017. 

v Cowen, Katie. The Kurdish Dilemma in Turkey. Washington Kurdish Institute. 2023. https://dckurd.org/2023/01/26/the-kurdish-dilemma-in-turkey-2/. 

 vi Ibid. 

vii McDowall, David. A Modern History of the Kurds. London: I.B. Tauris. 1997.  

viii Ali, Othman. The Kurds and the Lausanne Peace Negotiations, 1922-23. Middle Eastern Studies 33 (3): 521–34. 1997. 

https://www.jstor.org/stable/4283891 

ix LoBianco, Joseph. The Cultural Dimension in the Educational Process (The case of Turkey). Maat for Peace, Development and Human Rights. 2016.  https://www.jstor.org/stable/3444908.

xi Cowen, Katie. The Kurdish Dilemma in Turkey. Washington Kurdish Institute. 2023. https://dckurd.org/2023/01/26/the-kurdish-dilemma-in-turkey-2/. 

xii Çevik, Esra. KURDISH LANGUAGE RIGHTS and MOTHER TONGUE in EDUCATION. Civil Rights Defenders, 2. 2019. 

https://crd.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/EUTH-Turkey-Kurdish-Language-Rights-Mother-Tongue-in-Education-Esra-Cevik.pdf. 

xiii ibid.  

 xiv Ibid.  

xv Cowen, Katie. The Kurdish Dilemma in Turkey. Washington Kurdish Institute. 2023. https://dckurd.org/2023/01/26/the-kurdish-dilemma-in-turkey-2/. 

xvi Ibid.  

xvii Çevik, Esra. KURDISH LANGUAGE RIGHTS and MOTHER TONGUE in EDUCATION. Civil Rights Defenders, 2. 2019. 

https://crd.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/EUTH-Turkey-Kurdish-Language-Rights-Mother-Tongue-in-Education-Esra-Cevik.pdf. 

xviii LoBianco, Joseph. The Cultural Dimension in the Educational Process (The case of Turkey). Maat for Peace, Development and Human Rights. 2016. 

xix Kaczorowski, Karol. Kurdish Language and Multicultural Education in Turkey. Ez Mafê Xwe Dizanim! I Know My Rights! – Manual on Human Rights Education and the Right to Mother Tongue Education, 57. 2016. 

https://www.academia.edu/48963803/Kurdish_language_and_multicultural_education_in_Turkey. 

xx Ibid.  

xxi Ibid.  

xxii Hassanpour, Amir, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, and Michael Chyet. The Non-Education of Kurds: A Kurdish Perspective. International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift Für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale de L’Education 42 (4): 371. 1996. 

https://www.jstor.org/stable/3444908. 

xxiii Aydin, Hasan. Status of Education and Minorities Rights in Turkey. Georgetown Journal of International Affairs. 2020. 

https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/12/20/status-of-education-and-minorities-rights-in-turkey/ 

xxiv Ibid.  

xxv Ibid.  

xxvi Editor. Suppression of Kurdish language in Turkey is reflection of general intolerance towards Kurds: community leader. 2021. https://stockholmcf.org/suppression-of-kurdish-language-in-turkey-is-reflection-of-general-intolerance-towards-kurds-community-leader/ 

xxviii Letsch, Constanze. In Turkey, Repression of the Kurdish Language Is Back, with No End in Sight. The Nation. 2017.  

https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/in-turkey-repression-of-the-kurdish-language-is-back-with-no-end-in-sight/ 

xxix Çevik, Esra. KURDISH LANGUAGE RIGHTS and MOTHER TONGUE in EDUCATION. Civil Rights Defenders, 4.2019. 

https://crd.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/EUTH-Turkey-Kurdish-Language-Rights-Mother-Tongue-in-Education-Esra-Cevik.pdf. 

xxx ibid.  

xxxi Ibid.  

xxxii Ibid.  

xxxiii Balkan, Binnur and Seyit Mumin Cilasun. ETHNIC DISCRIMINATION IN THE TURKISH LABOR MARKET: EVIDENCE FROM SURVEY AND FIELD DATA. 2018.  

xxxiv Ibid. 

 xxxv Ibid.  

 

Photo by ‪Salah Darwish on Unsplash

Poverty and Inequality Within Thailand’s Education System

Thailand Divided: Inequality and Poverty  

The urban-rural divide in terms of education and life opportunities is stark in Thailand. Anand Panyarachun, the former Prime Minister of Thailand, stated that the country’s education system is steeped with an “inequality of opportunity”; that those who were given opportunities to move forward in life were often from favourable socio-economic backgrounds.i 

Thailand has the highest income inequality rate in East Asia and the Pacific region.ii According to The Economist in 2017: Thailand’s social divide is interlinked with its poor rating in education, with one-third of 15-year-olds in the country having been “functionally illiterate”.iii It was argued that the country focused too much on establishing small schools in villages, with almost half of them having less than 120 students and only one teacher per class. With the over-expansion of education at the cost of efficient and quality teachers, students rated in the bottom quarter of 70 countries in terms of maths, reading and science. 

  

In 2023, a United Nations Development Programme Report found that, compared to other ASEAN countries, Thailand has made the most progress in eradicating poverty.iv However, individuals who may live above the monetary poverty line may yet suffer from poor health, education and/or a lack of good standards of living. Thailand worked to reduce poverty from 58 percent in 1990 to 6.8 percent in 2020.v However, 79 percent of the poor people are from rural zones and work mainly in agriculture, and from 2016 onwards poverty increased in Thailand to reach over 3 percent in rural areas compared to urban ones. By 2020, the rural poor outnumbered the urban poor by 2.3 million. As rural households have an average monthly income of around 68 percent of those in urban households, they also face low education standards and opportunities. Indeed, UNICEF reports that the current levels of child grants received by the poor, which is 600 baht per month, is not adequate to meet their needs.vi 

 

Thailand Compared to Indonesia – A Personal Perspective 

In an interview with a current bachelor’s student studying in Singapore, the interviewee talked about their experiences in the Indonesian school system, where they studied for most of their life. In Samarinda City, a rural area, the interviewee noted that the quality of teaching was below average. Their school lacked facilities and specialized teachers, an issue which did not repeat itself when they moved to Jakarta to complete high school. There, the attention from the government was greater: “There is…quite a huge gap in equality I would say between the regions in Indonesia…” 

Due to the social inequalities in Thailand, more highly skilled youths are choosing to leave the nation to find better job opportunities elsewhere. In an opinion piece for Pacific Forum, Assavanadda claimed that some of the “push factors” for emigrants include dissatisfactions with the current socio-political order, weak welfare benefits, and economic downturn post-pandemic.vii Indeed, in a seminar about the future of Thai society, Former PM Panyarachun claimed that social inequality has pushed youths out of the country as they are failing to see a future for themselves if they stay.viii  

 

This might be true for more well-off individuals, but the reality for children from poor families remains disappointing: as richer parents send their kids to private schools in major cities like Bangkok and Pattaya to prepare them for overseas opportunities, less well-off families must contend with possibly barring their children from educational opportunities. As noted by Panyarachun, Thailand’s education is “beset” with an inequality in terms of the opportunities those from different classes are offered.ix 

 

Children Barred from Education: The Government Must Do More 

In a 2024 report by the Equitable Education Fund, it was estimated that 1.02 million children either dropped out of education or chose to stay home because of poverty; currently, 3 million students are at risk of withgoing education due to extreme poverty.x In a House of Representatives debate on the fiscal budget for 2025, MP Paramee Waichongcharoen from the Move Forward Party raised the issue of not enough attention being paid to the “dire needs” for extra funding that millions of students require to stay in education.xi  

 

MP Waichongcharoen said that the government was giving organizations aimed at removing educational disparities less funding than is required for efficient functioning. Although the Student Loan Fund (SLF) asked for 19 million baht in subsidies during the 2024 fiscal year, the government gave them only 800 million baht. A study by UNICEF and the Thailand Development Research Institute also revealed that over 34 percent of poor children fail to receive the monthly allowance that is promised to them under the Child Support Grant scheme.xii However, if Thailand were to spend 0.1 percent of their GDP on extra spending for the Child Support Grant, an action which is supported by 81 percent of Thais, over 1 million children under the age of 6 would benefit from the scheme in terms of health and nutrition.  

 

Recommendations 

Based on the challenges that have permeated the Thai social and educational system, some recommendations can be made to alleviate the social inequality and poverty faced by citizens.  

  1. Quality over quantity: (government) schools should focus more on employing qualified teachers to educate students in small village schools, instead of setting up more institutions and having only one teacher conduct educational activities. 
  2. Prioritise poverty reduction: more attention needs to be paid to the millions of students who are at risk of dropping out of education due to poverty. The government should spend more on funding the Child Support Grant scheme, given that over one-third of children in poverty fail to receive the benefits that are owed to them, and four-fifth of Thais support increasing support for the scheme.
  3. Motivate Thais to stay: the government should aim to strengthen Thailand’s social equality to motivate graduates to stay and work in the country rather than finding better opportunities elsewhere. In turn, the government will need to improve political discontentment and economic growth to provide firm grounds for better social equity. 

 

End notes 

i. nationthailand. (2024, May 25). Anand flags serious inequalities in Thailand’s education system. Nationthailand; null. https://www.nationthailand.com/news/general/40038310Modern Diplomacy. (2022). Rural Thailand Faces the Largest Poverty Challenges with High Income Inequality.

ii Modern Diplomacy. https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2022/10/21/rural-thailand-faces-the-largest-poverty-challenges-with-high-income-inequality/

iii. The Economist. (2017). Poor schools are at the heart of Thailand’s political malaise. The Economist. https://www.economist.com/asia/2017/01/19/poor-schools-are-at-the-heart-of-thailands-political-malaise?utm_medium=cpc.adword.pd&utm_source=google&ppccampaignID=18151738051&ppcadID=&utm_campaign=a.22brand_pmax&utm_content=conversion.direct-response.anonymous&gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjwpbi4BhByEiwAMC8JnRd4s5naAnZ0qR7nxxFZRybdjEnS4R2jAVwV7mVdqAmXo-ViB7X7GRoCsF0QAvD_BwE&gclsrc=aw.ds  

 iv UNDP. (2023). Thailand is among 25 Countries that Halved Multidimensional Poverty Within 15 Years | United Nations Development Programme. UNDP. https://www.undp.org/thailand/press-releases/thailand-among-25-countries-halved-multidimensional-poverty-within-15-years

 v Modern Diplomacy. (2022). Rural Thailand Faces the Largest Poverty Challenges with High Income Inequality. Modern Diplomacy. https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2022/10/21/rural-thailand-faces-the-largest-poverty-challenges-with-high-income-inequality/

iv UNICEF. (2024). A new study finds 34 per cent of poor children in Thailand are excluded from the Child Support Grant. Unicef.org. https://www.unicef.org/thailand/press-releases/new-study-finds-34-cent-poor-children-thailand-are-excluded-child-support-grant

vii. Assavanadda, A. J. M. (2024). Explore Pacific Forum’s Insightful Indo-Pacific Analysis. Pacific Forum. https://pacforum.org/publications/yl-blog-65-thailands-brain-drain-challenge-trends-and-implications/ 

viii. nationthailand. (2024, May 25). Anand flags serious inequalities in Thailand’s education system. Nationthailand; null. https://www.nationthailand.com/news/general/40038310 

ix. nationthailand. (2024, May 25). Anand flags serious inequalities in Thailand’s education system. Nationthailand; null. https://www.nationthailand.com/news/general/40038310

x. Sattaburuth, A. (2024). Student poverty “falling on deaf ears.” Bangkok Post. https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/2814730/student-poverty-falling-on-deaf-ears

xi. Sattaburuth, A. (2024). Student poverty “falling on deaf ears.” Bangkok Post. https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/2814730/student-poverty-falling-on-deaf-ears

xii. UNICEF. (2024). A new study finds 34 per cent of poor children in Thailand are excluded from the Child Support Grant. Unicef.org. https://www.unicef.org/thailand/press-releases/new-study-finds-34-cent-poor-children-thailand-are-excluded-child-support-grant 

Breaking the Cycle: Addressing Child Marriage in India and Its Impact on Future Generations and the role of education: A qualitative analysis

Child marriage in India, despite decades of reform, remains a significant social issue, affecting millions of young girls, particularly in rural areas. Marrying girls off at a young age has become a tradition deeply rooted in cultural norms and exacerbated by economic hardships. According to recent data, over 23% of women aged 20 to 24 were married before the legal age of 18 i,ii; . This figure is still high, but it represents a decline from previous decades. This article will explore the factors that perpetuate child marriage in India, the consequences it has on future generations, and the actions needed to break the cycle. The article will also provide insights on the role of education

Factors that Perpetuate Child Marriage
1. The Cultural Drivers of Child Marriage Issue

One of the main reasons for the persistence of child marriage in India is the deep-rooted cultural belief that early marriage secures a girl’s future. This practice is particularly prevalent in rural areas where traditional norms hold greater sway over people’s decisions than modern laws. In some communities, parents believe that marrying their daughters early is the best way to protect their honor and ensure their economic security iii.

According to our interviewee, from rural India described, “It’s not just about poverty—it’s about long-standing beliefs that are hard to change. No matter how much education you have, the cultural expectation that girls should marry young often takes precedence.” These entrenched beliefs are often passed down through generations, making it difficult to challenge them. Efforts to change these attitudes must be rooted in community engagement and dialogue iv.

2. Economic Pressures and Poverty
Another issue that arose in our interview was that of the economic status of families. Economic factors play a significant role in driving child marriage in India. For many families living in poverty, marrying off a daughter early is seen as a way to reduce financial burdens. When resources are scarce, having one less mouth to feed can seem like a viable solution. Furthermore, many families view marriage as a way to transfer financial responsibility to the husband’s family.

A study by the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) highlights the correlation between poverty and child marriage, showing that nearly 40% of girls from the lowest wealth quintile marry before the age of 18, compared to just 8% from the wealthiest families v . These statistics reveal the stark economic divide that contributes to the continuation of child marriage. Without addressing the economic pressures that lead families to marry off their daughters, it will be difficult to eliminate the practice entirely.

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic
The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated the issue of child marriage in India. The economic fallout from the pandemic, including widespread job losses and school closures, has led many families to marry off their daughters as a way to cope with financial uncertainty. According to UNFPA, the pandemic has pushed an estimated 10 million more girls globally into early marriage, with India seeing a sharp increase in child marriages during this period vi.
The pandemic also disrupted educational programs and community-based interventions aimed at preventing child marriage, further compounding the problem. As one student reflected, “During COVID, the unemployment rates soared, especially among women, and families who were already struggling found it even harder to provide for their children. Marriage became a way to reduce the burden”.

Legal Framework and Enforcement Background and Fact
India has strong legal frameworks designed to prevent child marriage, most notably the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (PCMA), 2006. This law sets the legal age of marriage at 18 for women and 21 for men and provides penalties for those who violate the law. Despite these legal protections, enforcement remains a challenge, particularly in rural areas where awareness of the law is limited, and traditional norms are more influential than legal mandates vii,viii; .

The Indian government has made strides in promoting gender equality and reducing violence against women and girls. The creation of One Stop Centres and the implementation of a national helpline have provided vital support to women and girls at risk of violence and early marriage ix. However, the gap between policy and practice remains significant. Strengthening enforcement mechanisms and raising awareness about the legal consequences of child marriage are essential steps in addressing the issue.

The Consequences of Child Marriage
The consequences of child marriage are far-reaching and devastating, not just for the individual but for society as a whole. Girls who marry young are more likely to drop out of school, experience domestic violence, and face health complications related to early pregnancies. According to Plan International, girls who marry before 18 are also more likely to experience economic hardships later in life, as they are less likely to achieve financial independence.

Child marriage also perpetuates cycles of poverty, as girls who marry early are denied the opportunity to contribute meaningfully to their communities. Additionally, the practice reinforces gender inequality by limiting the opportunities available to women and keeping them in subordinate roles within society. Addressing child marriage is therefore essential not only for protecting the rights of girls but also for promoting gender equality and reducing poverty.

Education as a Tool for Change
Education is one of the most powerful tools in delaying marriage. Girls who stay in school longer are less likely to marry early and more likely to achieve financial independence. Research by Plan International has shown that over 70% of girls with no education marry before 18, compared to 27% of those who complete secondary school. Education provides girls with the knowledge and skills needed to contribute economically to their families, which reduces the perceived need for early marriage x.

In some regions of India, programs focused on education have shown success in delaying marriage. For example, vocational training programs that provide girls with marketable skills have enabled them to become financially independent, thereby reducing the economic pressures on families to marry them off. However, while education is a crucial part of the solution, it must be accompanied by efforts to change cultural attitudes toward marriage xi,xii ; .

Community-Based Interventions
Community engagement is key to changing the social norms that perpetuate child marriage. Initiatives that involve parents, local leaders, and youth in discussions about the harms of child marriage and the benefits of education have been successful in changing attitudes. Programs supported by organizations such as Girls Not Brides have demonstrated that when communities are involved in the conversation, real change can occur xiii.

One effective approach is to engage men and boys in the fight against child marriage. By challenging traditional gender roles and promoting gender equality, these programs help change the perception that girls are a financial burden that can be alleviated through marriage. Additionally, involving religious and community leaders can lend credibility to efforts aimed at ending child marriage, as these figures hold significant influence in rural areas xiv.

Recommendations for Addressing Child Marriage
Ending child marriage in India will require a multi-pronged approach that goes beyond legal reforms. While laws like the PCMA are crucial, they must be supported by efforts to change cultural attitudes, improve access to education, and provide economic alternatives to marriage.
1. Strengthen Education Programs: Expanding access to quality education, particularly in rural areas, is essential for delaying marriage. The government should prioritize building more schools, providing scholarships, and ensuring that schools are safe environments for girls. Programs that provide vocational training for girls at risk of child marriage are also crucial.
2. Change the Cultural Narrative Around Child Marriage: Another important recommendation from our interviewee was the need to shift cultural perceptions. The student emphasized that families need to realize that child marriage does not necessarily provide a better future for their daughters. By changing this narrative, and reinforcing the value of education, it becomes easier to convince families to delay marriage.
3. Involve Local Stakeholders in Policy Making: The student interviewed emphasized that governments and international organizations should involve local stakeholders, such as community leaders, parents, and law enforcement, in the policy-making process. By engaging these individuals, governments can tailor laws and interventions to reflect cultural realities, making them more effective. This involvement will also help spread awareness within communities about the importance of delaying marriage.
4. Engage Communities in Changing Norms: Community-based programs that involve local leaders, parents, and youth in discussions about the harms of child marriage are essential for changing cultural attitudes. Programs that involve men and boys in promoting gender equality can help challenge traditional gender roles and perceptions about marriage.
5. Strengthen Legal Enforcement and Simplify Procedures for Families: The student recommended that while legal frameworks like the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act are essential, their enforcement in rural areas remains weak due to a lack of awareness and accessibility. To improve this, the student suggested simplifying the process for families to access government schemes and legal support. This would involve reducing bureaucratic barriers, such as lengthy documentation requirements, which currently make it difficult for families to seek help. Additionally, better training for local law enforcement and officials to monitor and prevent child marriage is necessary. By making legal support more accessible and ensuring that penalties for child marriage are enforced consistently, families would be less likely to resort to early marriages.

Conclusion
Child marriage in India is a complex issue that requires a multifaceted response. While legal frameworks like the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act are crucial, they must be supported by efforts to address the cultural, economic, and educational factors that perpetuate the practice. By expanding access to education, providing economic support, strengthening legal enforcement, and engaging communities in changing social norms, India can make significant progress in ending child marriage and securing a brighter future for its girls.

REFERENCES

i  Plan International. “Child Marriage in India.” Plan International, 2024. https://planinternational.org/india.
ii  UNFPA India. “Child Marriage in India: Key Insights from the NFHS-5 (2019-21).” UNFPA India, 2024. https://india.unfpa.org.
iii  Girls Not Brides. “India – Girls Not Brides.” Girls Not Brides, 2022. https://www.girlsnotbrides.org.
Plan International. “Child Marriage in India.” Plan International, 2024. https://planinternational.org/india.
v   UNFPA India. “Child Marriage in India: Key Insights from the NFHS-5 (2019-21).” UNFPA India, 2024. https://india.unfpa.org.
vi  UNICEF India. “Reducing Child Marriage in India.” UNICEF India, 2024. https://www.unicef.org/india/reports/reducing-child-marriage-india.
vii  Plan International. “Child Marriage in India.” Plan International, 2024. https://planinternational.org/india.
viii  Girls Not Brides. “India – Girls Not Brides.” Girls Not Brides, 2022. https://www.girlsnotbrides.org.
ix  Ibid.
x   Plan International. “Child Marriage in India.” Plan International, 2024. https://planinternational.org/india.
xi   Ibid.
xii   UNFPA India. “Child Marriage in India: Key Insights from the NFHS-5 (2019-21).” UNFPA India, 2024. https://india.unfpa.org.
xiii   Girls Not Brides. “India – Girls Not Brides.” Girls Not Brides, 2022. https://www.girlsnotbrides.org.
Ibid.

Broken Chalk urges international response to the mass detentions in Türkiye

The human rights organization Broken Chalk is urging the international community to take action following the detention of over 200 individuals primarily university students by Turkish authorities during protests earlier this month.

The recent wave of detentions happened on May 6, 2025. It is particularly worrying that the detainees were not allowed access to a legal counsel and their families for the first 24 hours. The case details were not transparent either, leading to serious worrying from families and their legal representatives. Due process and transparency are missing in the detention process.

This latest operation also marks a continued effort to detain individuals alleged to be linked to the Hizmet Movement (or “FETÖ”, as referred to by Turkish authorities). Framed as a counter-terrorism effort, the Interior Minister Ali Yerlikaya shared a propagandistic video depicting routine activities by headscarved women as subversive acts. Multiple arrests were based on questionable grounds such as attending educational events, traveling abroad, or living with persons who were detained in earlier waves of arrests of Hizmet Movement affiliated persons. Notably, young female students were heavily targeted—some detained for cultural trips or mere associations. In one tragic case, a woman was arrested despite having lost her father to cancer while he was imprisoned under similar charges. It is clear that the Turkish authorities are using the term “terrorism” broadly, increasingly targeting civic or religious activity with this approach, and consequently, undermining rule of law and civil freedoms.

The arrests did not start on the 6th of May. Ever since the arrest of the Mayor of Istanbul on the 19th of March, 2025, the number of detentions has been increasing. President Erdogan is cracking down on the freedom of speech of the population, trying to drown the voice of the people who are questioning the arrest and the withdrawal of the bachelors diploma of Mr Imamoglu. It is important to note that the diploma is needed for signing up for the presidential candidacy. It is suspected that this was a deliberate move to make the Mayor of Istanbul disqualified early on from the presidential race. The Turkish population mobilised in big numbers but this also came at a cost, more than 2000 persons, have been detained and the number could be way higher.

Broken Chalk wishes to raise awareness of these events, especially to the clear violation of fundamental human rights such as the right to freedom of assembly and the right to due process. The way the arrests are conducted and the detention procedure is happening, it is clear that there is a lack of transparency, which undermines the trust in authorities and in general, the government.

Broken Chalk is calling on global leaders and human rights bodies to monitor the situation closely and pressure the Turkish government to respect civil liberties and the rule of law:

High Commissioner for Human Rights,
Secretary General of the Council of Europe,
Chairman of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention,
Special Rapporteur on Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment,
Special Rapporteur on the Protection of Private Life,
Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression,
Special Rapporteur on the Independence of Judges and Lawyers and
Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights.

Photo by Mathias Reding on Unsplash

References

 1. BBC, “Thousands turn out for Turkey protests after more than 1,400 arrests” March 26 2025, <https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/ckgz58rz3k8o> 

2.  Al-Monitor, ‘Over 400 detained in Istanbul’s May day protest” May 1 2025 <https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2025/05/over-400-detained-istanbuls-may-day-protest-turkey-restricts-transit>

Educational Challenges in Mongolia

Nestled between Russia and China, Mongolia is a country of striking contrasts. Its vast steppes, rugged mountains, and expansive deserts have long shaped the nomadic lifestyle of its people, who rely on herding and agriculture for their livelihoods. Despite rapid urbanization, nearly one-third of Mongolia’s population continues to live a nomadic existence, moving with the seasons in search of better pastures. This way of life, while culturally rich, presents unique challenges for the education system.

In urban centres like Ulaanbaatar, modern schools cater to growing populations, but in rural areas, children from nomadic families often face interrupted schooling or must travel long distances to attend classes. Mongolia’s economy, still heavily reliant on mining and livestock, has seen significant growth, yet income disparities persist. These economic and geographic factors contribute to a widening gap in educational access and quality, particularly for those living in remote regions.

Mongolia faces a significant educational challenge: ensuring access to quality education for all its children. While the government has made strides in expanding school enrolment, disparities remain stark, particularly between urban and rural areas. Many children in remote regions lack access to well-equipped schools, trained teachers, and modern learning resources.

Mongolia’s education system follows a structure influenced by the Soviet model. It includes four years of primary education starting at age 8, followed by four years of middle school, both of which are compulsory. Secondary education spans two to three years, often requiring rural students to stay in hostels to attend school due to the lack of schools in rural areas. Vocational education is available but underdeveloped, and tertiary education is offered by institutions like the National University of Mongolia. Challenges include geographic disparities and limited resources for rural and vocational education.

  1. The geographic divide in education

Mongolia’s vast, sparsely populated terrain significantly impacts students’ access to quality education, particularly those from rural and nomadic families. According to UNESCO, around 30% of Mongolia’s population is nomadic or semi-nomadic, and their constant movement disrupts children’s education. Rural students often must travel over 50 km to reach boarding schools, where resources are often inadequate. Poor infrastructure, including unpaved roads, further limits access, especially during harsh winters. These barriers contribute to lower enrolment rates and a persistent urban-rural gap in educational outcomes.

2. Qualities disparities between urban and rural schools

In Mongolia, the divide between urban and rural schools is stark, with rural students facing several significant barriers to accessing quality education. One of the key issues is teacher shortages in remote areas. In urban schools, teachers are typically more qualified and better supported, but in rural regions, schools often struggle to attract and retain qualified educators. This is due to a combination of factors, including the harsh living conditions in rural areas, lower salaries, and the lack of professional development opportunities. As a result, many rural schools have teachers who are either underqualified or not specialized in the subjects they teach.

Furthermore, the curricula in rural areas are often outdated and fail to reflect modern pedagogical trends or the needs of students in an increasingly globalized world. Urban schools, on the other hand, are more likely to have access to updated learning materials and teaching strategies. Technology access is another key issue. Rural schools often lack reliable internet access and computers, which are increasingly essential for modern learning. In contrast, urban schools typically benefit from better technological infrastructure, providing students with more opportunities for digital learning.

Additionally, urban migration has exacerbated overcrowding in city schools, putting additional strain on already limited resources. As more people move to urban areas in search of better opportunities, cities like Ulaanbaatar are experiencing rapid population growth, which has led to overcrowded classrooms. This not only impacts the quality of education by reducing the amount of individualized attention students receive but also places pressure on school infrastructure and teaching staff while urban schools in Mongolia generally benefit from better resources and infrastructure, rural schools face significant challenges, including teacher shortages, outdated curricula, and limited access to technology. At the same time, urban migration has intensified overcrowding in city schools, further straining educational resources and affecting the quality of education. To address these disparities, targeted investment in rural education and reforms to urban schooling systems are needed.

3. Economic and social barriers to education

Poverty in Mongolia severely limits access to quality education, as many families cannot afford essential school supplies, uniforms, or fees. Approximately 30% of Mongolia’s population lives below the poverty line, and this economic strain forces many children to abandon school to help with household work or to generate income. In rural areas, where resources are already scarce, this issue is more pronounced, leading to high dropout rates and perpetuating the cycle of poverty. Without proper education, these children’s future opportunities.

4. Cultural factors and gender disparities significantly impact access to education in Mongolia, especially for ethnic minorities and rural populations. The UNICEF 2020 fact sheet highlights that early childhood education (ECE) attendance among Kazakh children is notably lower—47% for those aged 2–4 and 56% for 5-year-olds—due to geographic isolation and linguistic barriers. Gender expectations also contribute to inequality, with girls in rural areas often prioritizing domestic responsibilities over education. These challenges perpetuate unequal access and hinder educational outcomes for marginalized groups.5

 

Government Efforts and Limitations

The Mongolian government has implemented several initiatives to address access to quality education, particularly for nomadic and rural populations. One significant initiative is the establishment of mobile ger kindergartens. These portable schools, designed to align with the nomadic lifestyle, have provided early education to thousands of children who would otherwise have no access to formal learning. Initiated in partnership with organizations like UNICEF and Save the Children, these schools allow children to develop foundational skills and prepare for higher education levels. By 2012, over 2,600 children benefited from such programs, with ongoing efforts to expand their reach​.

Additionally, scholarships and digital education platforms have emerged to support older students, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Remote learning programs, including televised and online classes, were introduced to maintain educational continuity. Despite their potential, these solutions face challenges, such as limited internet access and technological infrastructure in rural areas.

6. However, gaps persist in funding and policy implementation. Many educational initiatives rely heavily on international aid and partnerships, such as contributions from UNICEF and the Asian Development Bank. While these efforts have positively impacted access and quality, they highlight the dependency on external support, emphasizing the need for sustainable, government-led reforms​. Strengthening local education funding, enhancing teacher training, and improving digital infrastructure are critical steps for bridging the gaps in Mongolia’s education system.

 

The Role of Technology in Bridging Gaps

Mongolia has embraced innovative solutions to bridge the digital divide and improve access to education for students in remote areas. E-learning platforms like “Digital Adventure” offer interactive lessons, games, and quizzes, enabling children in isolated regions to learn independently. These platforms provide vital educational support, particularly during harsh winters or disruptions like the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, solar-powered devices have been introduced to address electricity shortages in rural areas. By equipping nomadic families with solar panels and portable generators, students can charge devices and access both online and offline lessons, ensuring continued learning regardless of location.

7. However, scaling these digital solutions is fraught with challenges. Internet connectivity remains a significant hurdle, as only a small percentage of rural households have reliable access to the internet. Infrastructure limitations further complicate the situation, with schools and homes often lacking the necessary technology to support e-learning. For many low-income families, the excessive cost of devices and connectivity is an additional barrier, making it difficult to participate in digital education initiatives. Compounding these issues is the lack of digital literacy among both students and teachers in remote areas, highlighting the need for targeted training and resources.

To fully realize the potential of these innovations, Mongolia must invest in expanding rural infrastructure, improving internet connectivity, and providing financial and training support for educators and families. By addressing these challenges, the country can ensure that all children, regardless of their geographic location, have equal opportunities to benefit from digital education.

 

Conclusion

Mongolia’s journey toward ensuring access to quality education for all its children reflects both significant progress and persistent challenges. Geographic isolation, resource disparities, and economic barriers continue to hinder the education system, particularly for rural and nomadic communities. While initiatives like mobile ger kindergartens, scholarships, and e-learning platforms have provided hope and opportunities, gaps in funding, infrastructure, and digital accessibility remain pressing concerns.

To address these issues, Mongolia must prioritize sustainable investments in rural education, enhance teacher training, and expand digital connectivity to underserved areas. Collaboration with international organizations and leveraging innovative technologies can further bridge the urban-rural divide. Ultimately, providing equitable access to quality education is not just a developmental goal but a critical foundation for Mongolia’s social and economic future. As the country works to overcome these barriers, it reaffirms a powerful commitment: ensuring every child, no matter where they live, can thrive and contribute to a brighter, more inclusive tomorrow.

Photo of Mongolian horses and the flag of Mongolia by Ryan Brooklyn on Unsplash 

 

Reference:

Graceffo, Antonio. “Poverty and Educational Access in Mongolia.” LinkedIn Pulse. Last modified May 3, 2016. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/poverty-educational-access-mongolia-antonio-graceffo-phd-china-mba#:~:text=A%20lack%20of%20government%20income,problems%20together%20exacerbate%20the%20problem.

Scholaro. “Mongolia Education System.” Accessed November 28, 2024. https://www.scholaro.com/db/countries/Mongolia/Education-System.

The Borgen Project. “Education in Rural Mongolia.” Last modified August 19, 2021. https://borgenproject.org/education-in-rural-mongolia/#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20UNICEF%20fact,between%20rural%20and%20urban%20schools.

UNDP. “Bridging the Digital Divide in Mongolia,” n.d. https://www.undp.org/mongolia/blog/bridging-digital-divide-mongolia.

UNESCO. Mongolia: Education Policy Review—Paving the Way to Education 2030. Accessed November 28, 2024. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000266056.

UNICEF. MICS-EAGLE Education Fact Sheets: Mongolia 2020. New York: UNICEF, 2020. https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/MICS-EAGLE_Education_Fact-sheets_2020_Mongolia.pdf.

UNICEF Mongolia. “Time to Revamp Education: Mongolia’s Path to a Brighter Future.” UNICEF. Last modified March 21, 2023. https://www.unicef.org/mongolia/stories/time-revamp-education-mongolias-path-brighter-future.

 

Arrest of Turkish-Brazilian Businessman in Brazil Raises Human Rights Concerns

Introduction

On May 1, 2025, Turkish-Brazilian dual national Mustafa Göktepe was arrested in São Paulo, Brazil, following an extradition request from the Turkish government over alleged links to the Gülen movement.

Background

Mustafa Göktepe, 47, has resided in Brazil for approximately two decades and became a naturalised citizen in 2012. He is married to a Brazilian woman and has two daughters, aged 8 and 13, both born in Brazil. Göktepe is a prominent figure in the Turkish-Brazilian community, operating a chain of Turkish restaurants that employ over 100 individuals. He also serves as the president of the Institute for Intercultural Dialogue (Instituto Pelo Dialogo Intercultural), a Brazilian NGO dedicated to promoting intercultural dialogue. He also worked as a computer teacher in Türkiye at a school known as Gülen School.

Legal Proceedings

Justice Flávio Dino of Brazil’s Supreme Federal Court (STF) ordered the arrest, which is provisional pending the court’s decision on the extradition request. The Turkish government accuses Göktepe of having links to the Gülen movement, which it classifies as a terrorist organisation. However, the movement denies involvement in any terrorist activities.

Ankara accuses Gülen, a U.S.-based Muslim cleric, of orchestrating the July 15, 2016, coup attempt, and has declared his movement a terrorist organisation. He denies any connection with the abortive putsch.

At its peak, the Gulen movement operated schools in 160 countries, from Afghanistan to the United States. Since the coup attempt, Türkiye has pressured allies to shut down Gulen-run establishments.

 

Human Rights Considerations

The case raises significant human rights concerns, particularly regarding the potential for political persecution. Given Göktepe’s long-standing residence in Brazil, his Brazilian citizenship, and his family’s ties to the country, extradition could have profound implications for his rights and well-being. It is crucial that Brazilian authorities thoroughly assess the extradition request, ensuring compliance with international human rights standards and protections against political persecution.

 

Since 2015, hundreds of men alleged by the Turkish authorities to have links with the Gülen movement, living in countries around the world, have been arbitrarily detained and forcibly returned to Türkiye. All these people are faced with very serious human rights violations in Türkiye.

 

Conclusion

The arrest of Mustafa Göktepe underscores the complexities at the intersection of international law, human rights, and political considerations. As the Brazilian judiciary deliberates on the extradition request, it is imperative to uphold the principles of justice and human rights, ensuring that individuals are not subjected to political persecution under the guise of legal proceedings.

 

References

​​Turkish Minute. (2025, May 3). Turkish businessman arrested in Brazil, faces extradition to Turkey over Gülen links. https://www.turkishminute.com/2025/05/03/turkish-businessman-arrested-in-brazil-faces-extradition-to-turkey-over-gulen-links/ ​

 

Six Turks arrested in Kosovo over Gulen links extradited to Turkey – Anadolu https://www.reuters.com/article/world/six-turks-arrested-in-kosovo-over-gulen-links-extradited-to-turkey-anadolu-idUSKBN1H5213/

 

Press Release: Enforced Disappearances of Educationist Orhan Inandim https://www.reuters.com/article/world/six-turks-arrested-in-kosovo-over-gulen-links-extradited-to-turkey-anadolu-idUSKBN1H5213/

UNIVERSAL PERIODIC REVIEW OF MONGOLIA

Broken Chalk has drafted this report as a stakeholder contribution to the fourth cycle of the Universal Periodic Review (UPR) for Mongolia. As Broken Chalk’s focus is on combating human rights violations within the educational sphere, the contents of this report and the following recommendations will primarily focus on the Right to Education. 

The Mongolian school system consists of a 12-year structure, including primary, secondary and tertiary (higher) education. Primary school, mandatory for all children, begins at the age of 6 and consists of grades 1 through 5. Secondary education is divided into lower secondary and upper secondary education: the first, covering grades 6 through 9, is mandatory, whereas upper secondary education is optional. The latter spans from grades 10 to 12 and prepares students for higher education, while also including a vocational track. i

Enrolment rates in primary schools in Mongolia stand at 97%. Additionally, access to early childhood care and education (ECCE services) for children aged 3 to 5 stands at 83%, demonstrating Mongolia’s commitment to prioritizing education. Nevertheless, the number of students decreases in upper secondary schools, with 5.1% of girls and 13.4% of boys reportedly dropping out. This reveals a concerning disparity between genders, indicating broader socioeconomic issues or a lack of vocational education. ii

In recent years, Mongolia has made significant progress in raising enrolment rates and digitalizing education systems. However, due to the pandemic and a lack of infrastructure, many children remain vulnerable. The PISA 2022 results demonstrate a significant lack of reading skills and provide insight into the challenges affecting primary education. Most importantly, one in three children in Mongolia lack the necessary reading and math skills, while youths often lack access to extracurricular activities. iii 

In 2024, Mongolia continued to work on digitalization and teacher training in collaboration with UNICEF and the GIGA initiative. The government has pursued additional grants and scholarships to students enrolled in higher education, aiming to make universities and vocational training institutions more accessible. iv v

 

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50th_Session_UN-UPR_Mongolia
References

i “Education.” n.d. UNICEF Mongolia. UNICEF. Accessed November 28, 2024. https://www.unicef.org/mongolia/education#:~:text=Enrollment%20rate%20in%20school%20is,been%20worsened%20by%20COVID%2D19. 

ii Kouassi-Komlan, Evariste. 2024. “Time to Revamp Education: Mongolia’s Path to a Brighter Future.” UNICEF Mongolia. UNICEF Mongolia. Accessed November 28, 2024. https://www.unicef.org/mongolia/stories/time-revamp-education-mongolias-path-brighter-future.  

iii Ibid. 

iv  “Q&A with the Minister of Education of Mongolia on the evolving right to education.” 2023. UNESCO. UNESCO. Accessed November 28, 2024. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/qa-minister-education-mongolia-evolving-right-education.  

v “Giga Expands its Reach to 30 Countries.” 2023. November 9, 2023. https://giga.global/gigax30/.  

 

Featured Photo by  on Flickr