Hong Kong’s education system has undergone various influences. The colonization period by the British Empire after the Opium War introduced the English language as the medium of instruction (EMI). The four years of Japanese occupation transformed Hong Kong into the centre of international trade and further emerged as the centre of industry, business, and finance during the period between 1945 and 1997. Consequently, the population increase rapidly with migrants moving from mainland China and other South Asian countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia. Shortage of teachers, unequal distribution of resources and differences in education opportunities were shortly followed as a result. Since the handover of Hong Kong to the People’s Republic of China, the promotion of Chinese-medium instruction (CMI) in the school system has been introduced, alongside an increase in learning the Chinese language (Putonghua known as Mandarin) and culture. New problems occurred with a change in language policies and education reform after 1971, the appealing form of education that meets the needs and abilities of Cantonese-speaking students in the Chinese cultural context neglected ethnic minority students in the Education system.
The problem with the education system in Hong Kong
The article further reveals the problem with Hong Kong’s education reform and the adoption of a new language policy since 1997. Given the background of Hong Kong’s diverse education system, different types of schools were introduced to support the cultural demand. There are three types of schools in Hong Kong recognized by the education bureau: Public local schools (aided schools) that are either operated by the government or by local charitable or religious organizations. Both adopted local curricula where Chinese lessons are mandatory for students, but they can be taught in either English or Chinese as a medium of instruction. However, education is provided free of charge only for Hong Kong permanent residents. Private schools that are not funded by the Hong Kong government or educational sector, provide students and parents with a language choice of English, Chinese/ English and Chinese; International schools on the other hand, have full autonomy in student admission, course content, tuition fees, and deliver curricula that are widely accepted in several countries, such as the International Baccalaureate program. It is a common choice for expatriate or English-speaking families living in Hong Kong.
As of today, the issue of education inequality exists through different schooling systems, portraying social stratification through education opportunities, gender perception and mobility. Further calls for segregation and racial discrimination in society, limiting students’ future career prospects. Thus, by outlining the cause of unequal educational opportunities in Hong Kong, a wide range of recognition is needed to raise public awareness of Hong Kong’s education system.
Inequalities in Education
Education inequality not only includes opportunities to receive education, teaching recourses, faculty expenses, and continuation in participation, but the process of sustaining education opportunities should be equally desirable and concluded in the term. The educational reform in 1971 promoting 6 years of free primary education and the nine-year of compulsory education since 1978 has remarkably increased citizens’ literacy rates and life expectancy. However, while an escalation in the diffusion of education can be seen, quality and education opportunities continue to grow a gap in different groups. For instance, the 6 years of free primary education only applies to Hong Kong permanent residents with a limited number of positions open due to insufficient teaching faculties. Hence, competition rises between government-funded primary and secondary schools. Those who did not get into public local schools choose private or international schools as an alternative. Nonetheless, the quality of education differs between different types of schools. Since private schools are profit-oriented, it is often found that the teaching qualities are lower compared to public schools and international schools. Results in students from public schools or international schools having a sense of superiority among other students, enhancing education differences via grouping and alienation based on different schools and curricula. Therefore, the current contradiction in Hong Kong’s educational reform helps some children move up but keeps others on lower tracks and socializes them to blame for their own lack of success to themselves.
On the other hand, Hong Kong’s colonial culture enforces the idea of the English language as a medium of Instruction that is more beneficial for the reason that it was presented as ‘high culture’ used by members of the dominant class. As an example, the children of high-level government servants were often exposed to situations where they have to interact with colonials through English. Accordingly, students from the dominant class are more likely to do well on examinations and graduate from upper secondary schools and go on to universities. Another social factor that contributed to this fraction is family background. It is evident that the higher the socioeconomic status of the student’s family, the higher his or her academic achievements would be. On that account, the stratification of students in different school systems prolonged the capitalist society into levels of hierarchy, where workers’ children will have lower expectations in their world-view compared to upper-level workers’ children, who will position themselves in a higher innovative position and have richer expectations of themselves. More importantly, due to an influx of migrants from the mainland after the Civil War, newly arrived children (NAC) were a large proportion of the education system. However, most NAC are deprived of fair access to equal opportunity in schooling in EMI schools for the reason that their English level was too weak, hence, they have a hard time catching up with the Hong Kongers. Prevails an averaging issue when they do not have the ability to move on to the next educational level.
Influence of education reform and policy change
The immediate problem after the education reform in 1971 is the increase in the number of enrolments. Nine years of compulsory education prompt a rise in schools and faculty demand. The government of Hong Kong heavily rely on opening new public schools and private schools to meet the requirement. However, due to the fact that there was never a consistent pedagogical education in the history of Hong Kong, not only there is a shortage of teaching staff, but stability in the quality of teaching is also questionable. Most teachers do not have any qualifications in teaching but merely obtained a graduate degree in secondary or college degree Moreover, it pours a great amount of stress on the teaching staff, generating mental health problems in the early stages of the reform. Despite this fact, starting from 1982 onwards, faculty training slowly begins to catch up, raising qualifications to become a teacher. While the problem begins to compromise, the new language policy after the handover in 1997 induces new challenges.
The adoption of the Chinese-oriented language policy in 1997 aimed to promote the national language in the education system under a Chinese cultural context. The majority of students are required to attend Chinese-medium schools in which English is taught as a language subject. Regarding ethnic minorities, which consist nearly 9% of Hong Kong’s population, it became harder to gain proper education in mainstream schools. On top of that, the system of designated schools, which were designated for ethnic minorities in primary and secondary education, was abolished in 2013 for the reason to boost the multicultural educational environment in Hong Kong. Chinese language learning opportunities in former designated schools were limited, therefore the abolishment act strengthens racial discrimination encountered by ethnic minorities. Considering all students in local schools must pass every Chinese examination to advance to the next grade, the lack of opportunity to study Chinese has deprived ethnic minorities of the chance to develop an interest in learning the Chinese language. While private and international schools could be an alternative for admissions, the average tuition fee of over HKD100,000 is hardly a reasonable choice for most parents and immigrant families. This subsequently leads to ethnic minorities being marginalized in the Hong Kong education curriculum. As a result, more young people from ethnic minorities were getting denied in mainstream schools and were getting involved in gangs, creating social segregation from a lack of education attainability.
Nevertheless, while language is becoming a barrier to reaching equal education opportunities, gender segregation has endured since the very beginning. Even though the six years of free primary education and the nine years of compulsory education have reduced family burden and influenced gender to raise education opportunities for women, family’s socioeconomic background and ‘gender segregation’ still manifest limitations for women to achieve equal academic recognition. The traditional gender value in terms of “men outside of the home, women inside” has modelled students’ gender cognition since they were young. After secondary education, gender segregation was enhanced from the subjects they choose. It is widely agreed upon in society that girls should study liberal arts, and boys should study science. The restriction of choices later on influences their advanced studies, career path and societal status. The recognition of their role was further strengthened through literature such as examples from their textbook, sexual division of labour at school, reinforcement of female quality as obedience, passive and quiet, and separation of gender in physical education classes. The stereotyping of gender roles and the unequal sexual structure in education enlarges academic achievement between men, women and third genders. Ignoring gender education as part of the curriculum, especially towards helping students to form their own self-image and realize their potential.
Recommendations for solutions
As an ending remark, the inequality in Hong Kong’s education system could be improved from three different aspects. To sustain the process of education opportunities provided to students, individual-level development is the keystone to the issue. Personal qualities, mutual understanding, humanitarianism and inclusivity should be addressed and respected in the system of teaching, learning and examination. On the curriculum level, more flexible language learning subjects should be adopted into the education structure. Provide ethnic minorities and newly arrived children with language support to give them equal chances in learning abilities. On top of that, neutralization in gender education is consequential to shorten the gap of gender segregation, and encourage equal opportunities for both girls and boys to find the subjects they desire and are passionate about. In addition to language and gender curriculum, recommendations on a structure level are essential, for instance, a more flexible public examination for the compulsory academic subjects, and diversity in teaching staff and faculty members are needed to approach social justice and equality.
C. Stella. (2012) The Hong Kong policy of quality education for all: a multi-level analysis of its impacts on newly arrived children, International Journal of Inclusive Education, 16:3, 235-247, DOI: 10.1080/13603116.2010.481430.
Evans, S. (2017) ‘Language policy in Hong Kong education: A historical overview’, European Journal of Language Policy, 9(1), pp. 67–84. doi:10.3828/ejlp.2017.5.
Gerard A, P. and W. O, L. (1997) Schooling in Hong Kong: Organization, teaching and Social Context, Schooling in Hong Kong: Organization, teaching and social context | Hong Kong Education Bibliographic Database. Available at: https://bibliography.lib.eduhk.hk/en/bibs/ac62ffec (Accessed: 24 July 2023).
Hung, J. et al. (2019) Racism in Hong Kong: The Failure of Race Discrimination Ordinance in Educational Settings, ippr.com. Available at: https://ippr-journal.com/2019/01/23/racism-in-hong-kong-the-failure-of-race-discrimination-ordinance-in-educational-settings-2/ (Accessed: 24 July 2023).
Stephen Evans et al. (2007) Why EAP is necessary: A survey of hong kong tertiary students, Journal of English for Academic Purposes. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1475158506000634 (Accessed: 24 July 2023).
Uphill struggle for Hong Kong’s ethnic minority to learn Chinese (2022) Young Post. Available at: https://www.scmp.com/yp/discover/news/hong-kong/article/3187252/hong-kongs-ethnic-minority-students-face-uphill-battle (Accessed: 24 July 2023).
Located on the southern slopes of the Himalayan Mountains, combined with a vibrant culture and rich history, Nepal is known as a country with never-ending peace and love. However, such a beautiful country was only rated as a lower-middle-income country by the World Bank in its newest country classifications by income level. To achieve its aim of achieving middle-income status by 2030, education is of paramount importance. According to the data collected by the World Bank, Nepal has come a long way to raise its adult literacy rate from 21% in 1981 to 71% in 2021 and its youth literacy rate from 30% in 1981 to 94% in 2021. However, despite the promising increase, educational challenges persist in Nepal, hindering its national progress in providing accessible and quality education to its citizens.
Historical Background
Education in Nepal has a long history, starting from the time of the Gurukula system, where learning was based on apprenticeship. British colonial rule in Nepal brought significant changes to the education system, leading to the establishment of modern schools. Following independence, the Nepalese government implemented reforms such as compulsory education and the creation of teacher training institutions. In 1853, the Durbar School was established, which marked the start of formal schooling. During the Rana regime (1846–1951), education was confined to the ruling class, as it was seen as a threat to the autocratic regime. Nepal witnessed the expansion of its education system after the fall of the Rana dynasty and the transition to democratic governance in the 1950s. Later, in the 1960s, the introduction of compulsory education made primary education (grades 1–8) free and mandatory for all children. In the 1980s, the government extended the policy of free education to the secondary level (lower secondary education: grades 9 and 10, and upper secondary education: grades 10 and 11). In the 1990s, several universities were established, expanding access to higher education throughout Nepal.
Students in grade 6 at Shree Dharmasthali Lower Secondary School, Pokhara, Nepal. Photo by Jim Holmes for AusAID
Underlying Barriers
Despite the progress and efforts made by the government, the education system still faces a set of challenges that result from a set of barriers, namely sociocultural barriers, financial barriers, and infrastructural barriers.
Sociocultural barriers
In Nepali society, discrimination based on gender and caste is deeply rooted. Nowadays, sons are still preferred over girls for a lot of Nepali families. Beyond this, early marriage and the idea that girls are viewed as someone else’s property all hinder education for girls, while in reality, “investing in girls’ education transforms communities, countries, and the entire world”, Although Nepal declared caste-based discrimination unconstitutional in 1951 and criminalized discriminatory practices in 1991, caste-based discrimination persists despite the above-mentioned legislative countermeasures. The worst case is for girls and young women belonging to disadvantaged caste groups, as they suffer from intersectionality.
Besides, language, as a result of culture, also appears to be a barrier to education. According to the most recent Nepal Census in 2011, there are 123 languages spoken as mother tongue; among them, Nepali is spoken as mother tongue by 44.6% of the population. According to data collected in 2017, only 24 languages are utilized for the development and publication of textbooks at the basic education level, indicating that students whose mother tongue is not one of the 24 languages are disadvantaged.
Financial barriers
Although the Nepali government has made secondary education free, the allocated funds are not sufficient to cover the needed funds. Between stopping student enrollment and raising funds from the guardian, some public schools choose to raise funds from the guardian. There are other hidden costs, such as those related to school uniforms, bags, stationery, Fuor other supplies. In such a way, poverty becomes a barrier to education.
Infrastructural Barriers
The school facilities in Nepal are not sufficient to meet the privacy and safety needs of girls. According to the data collected by UNICEF in 2018, “Twenty percent of government schools lack improved water and sanitation facilities, with an additional 19 percent lacking separate toilets for girls and boys and menstrual hygiene management facilities”.
Moreover, the quality of education and quantity of schools in Nepal are highly uneven. The disparities in teacher-student ratios across Nepal are major and generally high, resulting in overcrowded classrooms and an inability to provide child-centered and quality education. The lack of well-trained teachers also leads to poor-quality education. Besides, inadequate school monitoring also makes it hard to ensure quality education.
Further, as observed by Human Rights Watch, children with disabilities face various forms of obstacles to inclusive education. The physical accessibility of most schools is rather limited, making it hard for children with disabilities to enter school, classrooms, and toilets. Children with disabilities are not well accommodated, as aides to support children in need to participate in mainstream education are far from enough. There is no academic curriculum for children with intellectual disabilities. There is also a lack of reasonable accommodations for examinations.
Persisting Challenges
As a result of the above-described barriers, the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology in Nepal, which manages the Nepali education system, admits in its School Education Sector Plan (2022/23-2031/32) that:
“The education system of Nepal faces a number of challenges, often similar to those encountered by other developing countries. For example, in terms of access and participation, 4.9 percent of children aged 5–12 years remain out of school as they are unable to access basic education. Challenges remain in completion, with 76.6 percent completing basic education.”
“The enrollment of children with disabilities remains far below the proportion in their respective total populations.”
“A large proportion of out-of-school and dropout children and those who repeat classis made up of the poorest, most vulnerable children and children with disabilities, concentrated in certain regions of the country.
“The lack of adequate, competent, and motivated teachers in schools poses a major further challenge in terms of improving the quality of learning.
“Some of the problems that have been observed are lack of effective and robust coordination and cooperation mechanisms and accountability systems between the Federal Government, Provincial Governments and Local Levels; lack of adequate human resources and capacity for education planning and implementation at Local Level; lack of strong leadership of the head teacher in school; lack of an effective system of accountability for student learning.
Way Forward
To tackle these barriers and challenges and to develop an education system where citizens can enjoy the right to acquire relevant and quality education comparable to regional and international standards, the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology has set objectives to develop an accessible and qualified education system for all children and an effective monitoring, coordinating, and collaborating system. Besides, the ministry also set an objective to strengthen alternative pathways in education. The objectives are supported by a series of strategies.
To conclude, through the decades, the education system of Nepal has changed tremendously, and Nepal has indeed made tremendous efforts regarding increasing the literacy of its citizens. However, Nepal still faces several forms of barriers and challenges, which are admitted by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology. Such barriers and challenges include deep-rooted discrimination based on gender and caste, insufficient accommodation for people with different mother tongues, poverty-related difficulties, low quality of education, a lack of basic infrastructure for girls and children with disabilities in school, as well as a lack of a school monitoring and accountability system. To address these obstacles and difficulties, the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology has set a set of objectives and strategies to achieve its vision and mission.
7 Educational System in Nepal: Structure, Challenges and Solutions.
8 P. Neupane, Policy Framework for Education Development in Nepal, International Education Studies, Vol.13, No.1,(2020).
9 J. B. Sapkota, D. B. Paudel, P. Neupane, & R.B. Thapa,. Preference for sex of children among women in Nepal. Global Social Welfare, 6(2), 69-78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40609-018-0117-9(2019).
17 United Nations General Assembly, Visit to Nepal, Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, Oliver De Schutter, UN doc. A/HRC/50/38/Add.2 (2022).
J. B. Sapkota, D. B. Paudel, P. Neupane, & R.B. Thapa,. Preference for sex of children among women in Nepal. Global Social Welfare, 6(2), 69-78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40609-018-0117-9(2019)
United Nations General Assembly, Visit to Nepal, Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, Oliver De Schutter, UN doc. A/HRC/50/38/Add.2 (2022).
The Education Monitoring Report 2022, released by UNESCO, estimates new data that shows that among adults, 83% of women and 90% of men are literate, with a 7% gender gap. As a result, a total of 771 million adults around the world lack basic literacy skills (Ahmed & Khawar, 2022). According to UNESCO’s Institute of Statistics, 2023 data shows there are nearly 773 illiterate adults (Literacy | UNESCO UIS, 2023). Current literacy data are often gathered by population censuses or household surveys in which the respondent or head of the household declares whether they can read and write a brief, simple statement about one’s everyday life in any written language.
There has been an increase in school attendance since education was adopted as a human right. When the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted in 1948, with a world population of 2.4 billion, 48% of the population had access to school (UNESCO, 2021). When the global population hit 8 billion in 2020, school enrollment had increased to nearly 90% (Statista, 2022).
These rates indicate that primary school attendance is increasing around the world. While 773 million people are illiterate, other parts of the world the education is more digitalized and going through higher education researchers. This distinction among illiteracy and the higher level education is very upsetting. There must more support in the regions and communities who are not even basic requirements of education.
In today’s world, education is not limited to a single life period but rather a never-ending process in every age. Education is crucial to catching up with the world challenges to achieve economic prosperity, individual development, and social cohesion. Everyone must be able to access educational opportunities throughout the entirety of their lifetime.
The interconnected global challenges require everyone, regardless of age, to pursue lifelong learning. Most importantly, adult education has a great impact on the new generations and the global development that young talent could bring. To raise children with a higher awareness of world problems and greater ability to find solutions to the new world challenges, we need educated adults.
In November 2021, UNESCO’s model Futures of Education report, “Reimagining Our Futures Together: A New Social Contract for Education” was published. The right to lifelong learning was also reinforced at the “Transforming Education Summit” in September 2022, following the UN Secretary-General’s appeal for a formal acknowledgement of a universal entitlement to lifelong learning and reskilling in his report “Our Common Agenda” (UN, 2022).
UNESCO’s recommendations and aims are explained as follows:
“The aim of adult learning and education is to equip people with the necessary capabilities to exercise and realize their rights and take control of their destinies. It promotes personal and professional development, thereby supporting more active engagement by adults with their societies, communities, and environments. It fosters sustainable and inclusive economic growth and decent work prospects for individuals. It is, therefore, a crucial tool in alleviating poverty, improving health and well-being, and contributing to sustainable learning societies.” (UNESCO, Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education, 2022).
The current situation of adult education today
Gender disparities in enrollment and attendance have declined during the last two decades. The gender gap in adult literacy is the widest in Central and Southern Asia, followed by Sub-Saharan Africa (Ahmed & Khawar, 2022). According to UNESCO’s latest Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education, there has also been progress, notably in the participation of women, who need adult education the most.
However, the report shows other disadvantaged and vulnerable groups, such as Indigenous learners, rural populations, migrants, older citizens, people with disabilities, or prisoners, all of whom are deprived of expected literacy levels. Around 60% of countries reported no improvement in the educational involvement of people with disabilities, migrants, or convicts. Rural population involvement has decreased in 24% of the surveyed countries. In addition, the involvement of older people has fallen in 24% of the 159 nations surveyed (UNESCO, 2022).
Coping Strategies: how to Increase Adult Literacy?
UNESCO’s latest Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education provides some hints on how to increase adult literacy. There are several tools and solutions that may be realized. Firstly, spreading awareness among individuals about the most vulnerable groups who are mostly excluded from adult education is a way to mitigate the lack of adult literacy. Migrants, indigenous people, older citizens, and people with disabilities are the most vulnerable. Awareness, providing funds by NGOs and IGOs is a very powerful tool for helping vulnerable groups. In addition, making campaigns could be very beneficial.
Secondly, the solutions lie on government action in terms of monetary policy. Countries must increase their investment in adult learning and education and spend a minimum of 6% of the GDP on education. Only 22 of the 146 countries spend 4% or more of their public education budget on adult learning and education, while 28 spend less than 0.4% (UNESCO, Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education, 2022).
Thirdly, cooperation between civil society, the private sector, and government bodies in accordance with education at all levels is essential. In recent years, improvement and progress have been made in many countries thanks to partnerships between different actors to reach adults who lack learning in the last years.
As a student at the University of Florence, pursuing a Master’s degree in International Relations and European Student in Italy, I am an enthusiast of human rights especially in supporting education rights that would create a better world for everyone. I apply my academic knowledge and skills to practical research work in the field of human rights.
References
Ahmed, A., & Khawar, U. (2022, April 28). 771m adults lacked basic literacy skills: Unesco – World – DAWN.COM. Dawn., from https://www.dawn.com/news/1687178
Education worldwide – statistics & facts. (2022, October 11). Statista, from https://www.statista.com/topics/7785/education-worldwide/#topicOverview
Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education. (2022, June 15). UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. from https://www.uil.unesco.org/en/grale5
Literacy | UNESCO UIS. (n.d.). UNESCO Institute for Statistics. from https://uis.unesco.org/en/topic/literacy
Reimagining our futures together: a new social contract for education. (2021). UNESCO Digital Library, from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379707.locale=en
The right to lifelong learning: Why adult education matters. (2022, June 15). UNESCO.org, 2023, from https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/right-lifelong-learning-why-adult-education-matters
Aruba is one of the six Caribbean islands that are part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The island has 100 thousand inhabitants who identify themselves as multilingual individuals who live in a multilingual society. The majority of the population speaks the local language, Papiamento, as their mother tongue. Nevertheless, Dutch has been the official and dominant language in administrative and educational systems since 1636. This ramification is due to the fact that, for 360 years of colonialism, the colonial authorities advocated the idea that everyone in Dutch colonies had to speak Dutch. It was only in 2003 that the Aruba government legally recognized both Dutch and Papiamento as official languages for Aruba. Additionally, due to migration, tourism, the influence of social media, and Aruba’s location (off the coast of Venezuela), global languages such as English and Spanish have also become important parts of the island’s linguistics. Because of this, the language situation in Aruba can be very complex, as the four dominant languages—Papiamento, English, Dutch, and Spanish—all play a role in individuals’ daily communication. According to census figures (2020), the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) found that the majority of the population of Aruba (92%) speaks Papiamento at home; this is followed by English (15%), Spanish (14%), and then lastly Dutch (10%).
Aruba’s Education System
Aruba’s education system is characterized by its comprehensive structure and commitment to quality education. The Aruba education system is based on the education model used in the Netherlands. Education is compulsory for children aged 4 to 16. Children start kindergarten when they are four. When they are six, they move on to basic education for children, and then when the children are twelve, they move on to vocational education, which lasts 4 years, or they move on to general secondary education, which lasts between 4 and 6 years. General secondary education prepares students for higher education, while vocational education emphasizes practical skills and prepares them for the job market.
Up until the age of 10, the dominant language in education was Papiamento mixed with some Dutch; after this, it switches around to Dutch being the dominant language mixed with some Papiamento. Specifically, nearly all of secondary education is conducted in Dutch, except for one sector, which is fully taught in Papiamento.
Language
Aruba faces a unique language challenge in its education system. While the majority of education is conducted in Dutch, the most widely spoken language at home is Papiamento. The dominance of Papiamento at home contributes to lower proficiency in Dutch, a crucial language for academic success in Aruba. Only 10% of the students speak Dutch at home; thus, a lot of students do not have prior knowledge of Dutch when starting school. This linguistic disparity poses a significant obstacle for a lot of students. Expressing themselves and demonstrating their knowledge in Dutch becomes a challenging task, leading to missed opportunities and hindrances in their academic progress. Additionally, it is evident that Dutch is not the language of choice for everyday communication and that, outside of academia, there is minimal necessity for the Dutch language. A survey conducted in Aruba revealed that most individuals do not have positive sentiments toward the Dutch language or culture. This negative perception may further discourage students from engaging with the language, making the language barrier bigger.
In Aruba, academic success is often correlated with one’s ability to express ideas fluently in Dutch rather than actual subject knowledge. This further disadvantages students who struggle with Dutch, as their true potential may not receive proper recognition. Graduation rates reflect this issue, with only one sector of secondary schools consistently achieving graduation rates of 75% or higher; coincidentally, this is the only sector of secondary school taught in Papiamento. This further shows the impact of language on academic outcomes.
Teaching predominantly in Dutch poses challenges due to students’ limited comprehension and possibly teachers’ proficiency in the language. Effective communication and learning may be hindered. Additionally, Aruba students have to take the same exams as students in the Netherlands, but the language barrier puts the Aruba students at a disadvantage, decreasing their chances of passing and graduating.
Overall, Aruba’s language challenge in education requires proactive measures to ensure all students have an equal opportunity to succeed. A balanced approach is necessary to efficiently incorporate Dutch alongside Papiamento. By finding this balance, students can excel academically while preserving the cultural and linguistic significance of Papiamento.
Students from the International School of Aruba. Photo by Laura de Kwant.
Brain drain
Aruba is a small island, and because of this, there are only limited opportunities. While the government subsidizes two higher education institutions, the Instituto Pedagogico Arubano and the University of Aruba, offering diverse undergraduate and graduate programs, the options remain relatively restricted compared to larger countries. And therefore, after completing their high school education, many students who aspire to pursue further studies find themselves with limited choices. To broaden their academic horizons, a substantial number of Aruba students opt to study in foreign countries such as the Netherlands, the United States, and Spanish-speaking nations, where there is a bigger variety of studies to pick from.
However, the consequence of this trend is that not all students return to Aruba upon completing their studies abroad. A survey conducted in 2011 among Aruba students studying in the Netherlands revealed that only 50% of respondents planned to return to Aruba within five years of finishing their studies. Various factors contribute to the decision of students to remain abroad. One significant reason is the employment landscape in Aruba, which is heavily dominated by the tourism industry, which produces more than 80% of the GDP (gross domestic product). While these sectors provide valuable opportunities for many people, the prospects for employment in some other fields are limited. As a result, individuals are compelled to seek job opportunities in countries where a more diverse range of industries can accommodate their education and expertise better.
This is called brain drain, which means the emigration of highly educated people seeking better opportunities abroad. To address this issue of brain drain and encourage talented individuals to return to Aruba, the Aruba government has implemented policies to encourage people to come back after their studies, such as giving a discount on students’ debts if they return after graduating.
Conclusion
To conclude, Aruba is doing a very good job of creating high-quality education and is, in general, not facing a lot of educational challenges. The main challenge primarily stems from the unique linguistic situation in Aruba. Aruba’s multilingual society, with Papiamento as the dominant language at home, presents obstacles in teaching and learning Dutch, which is the most used language in administration and education. This language barrier hinders academic progress and recognition of students’ true potential, ultimately impacting graduation rates and overall educational outcomes.
To address this issue, a balanced approach is crucial, emphasizing bilingualism and recognizing the cultural and linguistic significance of both Papiamento and Dutch. By promoting a supportive and inclusive environment, Aruba’s education system can better equip students for academic success while preserving their cultural identity.
The other challenge facing Aruba’s education is that, due to its small size and limited opportunities, many students seek higher education and better job prospects abroad. This phenomenon leads to the emigration of individuals who have been highly educated, potentially depriving the island of some individuals with valuable talent and expertise.
To counteract brain drain, the Aruba government has implemented policies to encourage the return of skilled individuals, offering incentives such as debt discounts for returning students. However, sustainable efforts are required to create a more diverse local job market that can accommodate the various skills that returning graduates might have.
In conclusion, addressing the educational challenges in Aruba necessitates a multifaceted approach that prioritizes language integration, cultural preservation, and initiatives to attract skilled individuals back to Aruba.
Over the last few decades, Sierra Leone has faced numerous setbacks. Between 1991 and 2002, Sierra Leone was witness to the devastating Sierra Leone Civil War (Ozisik 2015). 1,270 elementary schools were destroyed and 67% of all school-age students were forced out of school in 2001 as a result (ibid). A decade later, in 2012, Ebola struck Sierra Leone, leading to the closure of schools for at least nine months (Son, 2016). The nation has now stabilized and is trying to realize its potential (O’Neill 2014: 44). However, around 70% of people in Sierra Leone continue to live in poverty. This has led many children to work rather than attend school (ibid). In this context, it does not help that there are supply and space shortages, high student-to-teacher ratios and the lack of qualification and training of teachers. Additionally, an educational environment that disproportionately affects girls due to young pregnancies, child marriage, gender-based violence and cultural biases respectively. This, among other confounding factors, has laid a foundation for serious setbacks in the Sierra Leonean educational system, such as low enrollment rates, poor educational standards, and a gendered education gap. These factors are explored in this article.
The educational system in Sierra Leone has three basic levels: primary, junior secondary and senior secondary (Ozisik 2015). Primary school consists of six years, until the age of twelve, which are free for all. Between the ages of twelve and fifteen students enroll in junior secondary schools (ibid). After that, for children aged between fifteen and eighteen, students enroll in senior secondary schools (ibid). At this level, students choose whether they wish to continue their academic education by proceeding to university or focusing on vocational training instead (ibid). Regarding the first, there are two options available to students in Sierra Leone who want to pursue higher education: Njala University and the University of Sierra Leone (ibid). For vocational education programmes, agriculture is the primary subject of study, followed by skills in mechanics, carpentry, and bricklaying (ibid).
Challenges and their causes
Low attendance rates
First, only about 6% of children attended pre-primary school in 2011, meaning very few children got the foundations for learning and education (O’Neill 2014: 48-50). The primary school enrollment rate is high for males, around 100%, although much lower for females, around 70% (ibid). However, the completion rate for primary school is only about 71% for females and 76% for males (ibid). After primary school enrollment the numbers decrease drastically. Secondary school enrollment is about one-third of that of primary school enrollment (ibid). Even worse, tertiary school enrollment is just a few per cent, with the highest percentage of enrollment being 3% for men and 1% for women (ibid). This incredibly low rate of young people continuing their education demonstrates that education in Sierra Leone is neither a top priority nor an objective that most people value (ibid). This data is from 2001, following the Civil War (ibid).
In Sierra Leone, many children drop out or do not attend school for several reasons. Although many factors influence the low enrollment and high dropout rates in Sierra Leone, such as “living situations (presence of parents), location, gender, religion, cost, teen pregnancy, and early marriage” the article “The Out-of-school Children of Sierra Leone” by UNICEF (2008) argues that the main reason for children not being in school is poverty (Coinco 2008: 4). Due to the pervasive poverty, 87% of Sierra Leonean children decide to work instead of attend school, stating that they would “rather work and get paid than sit in school and be hungry” (ibid). In many cases, children are forced to work rather than attend school (O’Neill 2014: 50). For many families, children are seen as another source of income and are forced into manual labour at a young age (ibid). In line with this, many kids cannot attend school because their families simply cannot afford it (idem: 50-51). Despite the government taking steps to decrease or eliminate costs connected with attending school, many schools still require payment for services (ibid). In fact, 37% of the families who pay for their kids’ education say they struggle to do so (ibid). These two factors demonstrate that many children’s inability to attend school is mostly a result of poverty.
Low-quality education
A “Report on Basic Education in Sierra Leone”, prepared by The Campaign for Good Governance (CGG) (2006), found several factors that threaten the quality of education in Sierra Leone (O’Neill 2014: 45-46). These include supply and space shortages, high teacher-pupil ratios and the lack of qualification and training of teachers (ibid).
The past educational system in Sierra Leone was not prepared for the rapid increase in enrollment of children that would occur after the end of the Civil War (idem: 51). Although this increase was a positive development, it also resulted in supply and space shortages that made class sizes too large and simultaneously created higher pupil to teacher ratios (ibid). Due to the shortage in supplies, it is not uncommon for multiple students to share a single book for instance (Ozisik 2015). Moreover, higher student-to-teacher ratio results in less individualized learning time with the teacher (O’Neill 2014: 52). Spending time with the teacher in-person can frequently be a crucial component of understanding and learning (ibid). Without as much one-on-one time, a student can fall behind or feel lost, which would make it more difficult for them to learn fundamental skills (ibid). Additionally, larger classrooms make it more difficult for the teacher to educate, especially if the students are all at various levels of understanding (ibid).
A high student-to-teacher ratio is made even worse when taken into consideration with the reality that many teachers lack the necessary training (ibid). Since there are so few qualified teachers available, many school systems are forced to hire unqualified instructors (ibid). In fact, more than 40% of primary school teachers are untrained (Ozisik 2015). Untrained teachers might not be delivering the right lessons, they might not know how to manage huge classes of kids, and they might not know how to adapt their teaching methods to fit diverse learning types (O’Neill 2014: 52). There is also a good likelihood that Sierra Leonean native teachers did not finish primary school or go on to intermediate or university education (ibid).
It is simple to understand why Sierra Leonean children decide to take different pathways than that of education when there are so many things working against them, from a lack of resources to the large student-to-teacher ratio and their presumable inexperience (ibid). These kids and their families must put enormous work into keeping children in school for so little in return (ibid).
Children learn and play at the UNICEF-Supported Child Friendly Space at Sierra Leone’s National Stadium. Photo by UNICEF Sierra Leone.
Gendered education gap
The educational environment that disproportionately affects girls is a prevalent and particularly relevant issue that continues to affect education in Sierra Leone. Despite improvements in their access to education, a lack of class completion, high dropout rates, and continually low secondary enrollment persist for girls. The cycle of gender inequity is fueled by young pregnancies, child marriage, gender-based violence and cultural biases.
Sierra Leone is responsible for one of the highest teen pregnancy rates in the world, a phenomenon that is largely responsible for the high incidence of female dropouts (Ozisik 2015). In fact, the country’s education ministry has decidedly prohibited pregnant girls from attending school, under claims that they would be unable to perform well in class (Son 2016). The ministry argued that exposing pregnant girls to classmates would humiliate them and encourage others to become pregnant (ibid).
In Sierra Leone, girls frequently are married as young as age 11, and more than 60% of females nationwide are married before the age of 18 (Ozisik 2015). Early marriage makes it even more difficult for these females to pursue education and independence (ibid).
Furthermore, there is a strong gender disparity brought about by a strong bias that prioritizes male education and subverses that of girls (ibid). The reality is that girls in Sierra Leone are frequently instructed to stay home and take care of household chores while their brothers go to school (ibid). The general challenges articulated so far, namely supply and space shortages, high pupil-to-teacher ratios and the lack of qualification of teachers, have already made it challenging enough for all children to enroll in school (ibid). In an environment that has a dominant preference for boys’ education, the education of girls is made virtually impossible (ibid).
Conclusion
Overall, low enrollment rates, poor educational standards and a gendered education gap remain challenges for children trying to pursue quality education in Sierra Leone. These factors are compounded by problems ranging from poverty, to supply and space shortages, high student-to-teacher ratios and the lack of qualification and training of teachers, as well as young pregnancies, child marriage, gender-based violence and cultural biases.
Reference list
Ozisik, S. (2015). “Education in Sierra Leone”, The Borgen Project, https://borgenproject.org/education-sierra-leone/. Consulted on May 24th, 2023.
Son, P. (2016). “Education in Sierra Leone: Gender Inequality After Ebola”, The Borgen Project, https://borgenproject.org/education-in-sierra-leone-2/#:~:text=According%20to%20Business%20Insider%2C%20only,in%20Sierra%20Leone%27s%20education%20system. Consulted on May 24th, 2023.
O’Neill, R. (2014). Perpetuating a Vicious Cycle: The Causes and Effects of Poorly Educated Children in Sierra Leone. Global Majority E-Journal, 5(1): 44-56.
Coinco, E., Khatete, D. and Obdura, A. (2008). “The Out-of-school Children of Sierra Leone”, UNICEF, http://www.globalpartnership.org/media/library/Final_Out_of_School_Study_Sierra_Leo ne_012009.pdf. Consulted on May 24th, 2023.
UNICEF Sierra Leone (2022). “Education”, www.unicef.org/sierraleone/education. Consulted on May 24th, 2023.
Education is a fundamental rights for all humans around the globe. Regardless of one’s economic or social status, every human being should be entitled to Education. Despite the fact that this might seem obvious, it is not the reality for many Ugandans. Nevertheless, the government has and is still making significant efforts to cub illiteracy. For instance, the government split the education system into pre-primary, primary, secondary and post secondary or tertiary education.
Uganda has made progress in implementing universal primary education, yet many students do not achieve minimum levels of literacy and numeracy. Low learning levels contribute to low completion rates and many students fail to transition between grades and dropout rates are high.
Alice Namweru, age 32, is a teacher trainee at Miyana Primary School & Early Childhood Development Center. Photo by: GPE/Livia Barton
Conflicts and insecurity
Nearly 40 pupils have been killed at a school in western Uganda by rebels linked to the Islamic State group (IS).
Five militants attacked the Lhubiriha secondary school in Mpondwe. Uganda’s information minister said 37 students were confirmed to have been killed, but did not give their ages. Twenty of them were attacked with machetes and 17 of them burned to death, Chris Baryomunsi told the BBC.
The Ugandan army said the rebels had also killed a school guard and three members of the local community.
Survivors said the rebels threw a bomb into the dormitory after the machete attack. It is not clear if this resulted in a fire in the building which was reported earlier.
Six students were also abducted to carry food that the rebels stole from the school’s stores, he added. The militants then returned across the border into the DR Congo.
Lack of enough teachers
The lack of teachers is yet another huge obstacle to education in the rural areas of Uganda. Actually, in rural areas, it can be extremely difficult to attract great teachers, and hiring, in general, most teachers prefers to teach in urban areas. The reason is, rural life is not suitable for everyone. Many services such as healthcare, banks and proper housing can be harder to obtain as well.
Destin at Kyanja high school Mpigi teaching climate education. Photo by: Atwijukirenaomi
Household poverty
Access to and completion of schooling is inequitable, with girls and children from the poorest families at highest risk of school dropout: According to UNICEF in 2020,the secondary level enrollment of the richest 20 per cent of the population (43.1 per cent) is five times that of the poorest 20 per cent (8.2 per cent). In geographical terms, the highest Secondary Net Enrollment is seen in Kampala (52 per cent) and lowest in Acholi (7 per cent). Costs associated with education account for 6 out of 10 people leaving school among the people from the poor household.
Among children that do attend school in Uganda, the absence of qualified teachers, textbooks, and low-quality school environment all adversely affect learning outcomes: most students in fifth grade in rural areas in Uganda are not able to master basic mathematics and reading skills.
Physical distance to learning centers
Physical distance is another huge problem children attaining education in mainly rural areas have go through. Schools are located kilometers away from their home stay where kids have to move for long hours to get to their school. Some fail to go to school because it’s far while others tend to drop out.
Impact of Covid-19
The school closures and the loss of household income, particularly in rural areas, restricted access to education for school-aged children. Many students abandoned school permanently due to their parent’s loss of income. young people needed to find ways to generate an income while schools were closed. This posed different challenges depending on gender or location.
Girls did not reintegrate back into schools, and were exposed to early marriage and pregnancies. Teenage pregnancy and early marriages Ahead of the 2020 Day of the African Child, Save the Children had a discussion with selected children on how COVID-19 was affecting them. This story from Wakiso District sums it up. “A girl in primary five in a neighboring school was impregnated by a man working in a stone quarry. When schools closed, her mother sent her to sell. Many of these girls may never go back to school, because of the economic impact of COVID-19 on their families. In such instances, more girls than boys are likely to be affected as impoverished families usually prioritize educating the boys. The girls are expected to be married off.
Water, sanitation and hygiene
Water and sanitation are essential for life and health, but they are also essential for dignity, empowerment and prosperity. Water and sanitation are human rights, fundamental to every child and adult. But in Uganda, poor sanitation and hygiene, as well as unequal access to safe drinking water, make thousands of children very sick and at risk of death.
Early childhood diarrhoea is not only deadly; it also contributes to Uganda’s high levels of stunting, which in turn affects children’s cognitive development and performance at school. In school, lack of proper sanitation facilities also leads to high absenteeism and dropouts, especially for girls. According to UNICEF “Diarrhoea alone, one of three major childhood killers in Uganda, kills 33 children every day”. In most cases, children get the disease by drinking unsafe water or coming into contact with contaminated hands and most schools in Uganda especially in rural areas does not provide clean water for their students.
Child marriage, teenage pregnancy, abuse at schools and school fees keep many teens, especially girls, out of secondary schools. pregnancy accounts for 8 per cent of girls who left school. Similar challenges remain in the quality of education: only about 50 per cent of the children in Primary 3 were proficient in literacy and numeracy in a 2018 survey conducted by the Government.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Uganda’s government, therefore, has a responsibility of extending better social services in rural areas such as roads, schools, hospitals to facilitate development in those areas and hence improve people’s standards of living as well as education for the poor kids.
As government seeks to alleviate the effects of lockdown brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, emphasis should be placed on ensuring that systems that are supposed to protect girls and women from GBV are not compromised. If this is not done quickly, the country will have to deal with a number of psychosocial problems brought about by the lockdown. Clean water must be readily available for people to improve their hygiene habits, as must soap. And girls must have privacy and dignity when using sanitation facilities.
Johanna Farkas, Intern at Broken Chalk, did an interview with Felisa Tibbitts, co-founder of Human Rights Education Associates (www.hrea.org). The interview was recorded as audio, and this is the written transcription.
Felisa Tibbitts. Photo available in her website, Felisa Tibbitts.
Johanna Farkas(JF): Hello and good afternoon. This is the first episode of the Broken Chalk podcast. Broken Chalk is a human rights organization based in Amsterdam and it is dedicated to monitoring human rights violations in education. I am Johanna Farkas. I will be the host for today’s episode. It is my pleasure to welcome Felisa Tibbitts.
Felisa Tibbitts(FT): Hi Johanna. Thank you for inviting me.
JF: Thank you very much for accepting our invitation. Felisa, you have tremendous experience in the field of human rights and human rights education. To introduce you a bit more to the audience, Felisa’s main research interest is human rights and global democratic citizenship, critical pedagogy, education and social movements and human rights at higher education transformation. She is currently the chair of human rights education of the department of law, economics, and governance at the university of Utrecht as well as the UNESCO chair in human rights and higher education.
She has recently been teaching at Columbia university up until 2022. She also has several fellowships, awards, grants and some experience with board memberships and advisory positions. She has been working with organizations such as the UN, Council of Europe as well as Amnesty International.
There are several things to discover here, and I am excited to hear about everything.
What we will be focusing about today is your own organization that you co-founded that is the Human rights education association which I will be introducing later on.
But I will first ask some personal questions about you and your career path.
FT: Okay.
JF: Did you have a moment or a eureka moment when you knew that you want to work in the field of human rights or human rights education?
FT: That’s a really nice question. It’s interesting because some of my students who have become interested in human rights education often ask what is your career path? How did you get started and I don’t how it is for you Johanna or for people who are listening but it’s not always a straight or narrow path and for me I didn’t identify my interests as being in human rights until well into my adult career.
I had identified my interest as peace, I didn’t learn about human rights growing up. I hardly heard about human rights. It just wasn’t the language being used. I was very interested in peace. I grew up in a military family during the cold war, even during the Vietnam war, that’s how old I am and I remember when I ran out of fingers to count, when I had turned 11 years old I felt like I had to take a decision about what I wanted to do with my life.
I was a very serious child and I decided I wanted to work for world peace and then I got to college jump ahead about I guess at that point 7 years or so and I enrolled in a course offered by Karl Deutch at Harvard called Peace Research. I didn’t even know you could study peace and so that sort of set me on my path to combining my intellectual interest with my professional interest and there’s another story about how I ended up getting into human rights specifically but those were the origins for me.
I know a lot of people who are sort of lie first when it comes to their human rights work or human rights activism. They recognize at a really early age that they feel like they want to do something positive in the world whether that’s articulated as human rights or peace or social justice or you know it doesn’t really matter if it sets you on that path.
JF: You have a lot of understanding of what you want to do as we’ve heard. What do you find that people might misunderstand about human rights or human rights education or do you have maybe your own experience that you did not understand at first or something that has changed in your understanding?
FT: I came into the human rights field in maybe one of the most positive or affirming ways possible which is that historically the Berlin wall came down and at that time I was doing my doctoral studies in international education, and I was interested in democracy and peace. So, I hadn’t heard about human rights as I mentioned earlier and I still hadn’t heard at this point it was 1990 but I went to eastern Europe and went from sort of beginning with what was still the East Berlin all the way till Bulgaria with some colleagues to do some research and what would be changing in the educational systems so I got a little bit of a flavour for in what might be happening in educational systems from a researcher’s point of view.
And then just by luck, by chance a couple of years later I was at a conference and I met the head of the Dutch Helsinki Committee, which is the Dutch version of the Human Rights Watch, Arie Bloed. He had begun working with his colleagues in legal reform in the new post-soviet countries. So classic work that human rights people still continue to do in transitional justice in post conflict environments related to rule of law, good governance and human rights. So they were typically training and working with lawyers, judges and news laws and lifting up and strengthening civil society.
Then there was this other sector, the schooling sector, that the Dutch Foreign Ministry, who was their main funder, had become interested to have them work in and I happened to know Arie and he said you know would you like to help us come figure out what we might do to support infusing human rights in the schooling systems. Our first country is Romania and so I went.
In the process of doing the first mission in raising money I subsequently became a part time staff for the Dutch Helsinki committee and that really Johanna was the way I learnt about human rights. I didn’t learn it in the classroom. I learnt it with my colleagues who were human rights lawyers and I also learnt that with my partners, if you will, in these countries who themselves have heard of human rights maybe during the communist period, maybe it was just on paper what does that mean for real life so my own learning was accompanying that of my partners and although I had in one year all the legal standards the law related approach, on the other hand I was still working with teachers and kids and continue to do so for whom law is something that they cannot understand or access so there we don’t want to lose that power of human rights in terms of the international and regional human rights standards and laws but we also want to recognize the norms and principles that influence our everyday lives.
Now that being said there are many critiques to your question, there are many critiques to human rights and I think it’s really very healthy for the human rights field to have these. I mean there’s the critique that if we look at governments who have signed on to these treaties there’s the spectrum of how well they live up to their human rights obligations, we know that accountability mechanisms at the United Nations are weak you know, monitoring is a bit stronger, accountability is weak. We know that if we look into local national context we see human rights isn’t necessarily owned by everyone and it could be one political party that takes it on and then it ends up being associated with particular political agenda or in the United States with the progressives or the leftists, when it should be for everyone and of course there’s now the very classic critique of Eurocentric that is based on natural law and individualism and questions about universality so these are all critiques and they’re all alive and well and they’re all also valid.
One of the benefits of working in the field of education is, Johanna and for the people listening, you have to deal with these learners because you aren’t there to indoctrinate people on what human rights is, here it is take it accept it believe it and carry on. It doesn’t work that way. It is a particular justice-based system around rights. There are other frameworks for promoting social change, right? They don’t have to be named human rights. So I think in human rights education my approach is to actually offer the critiques early on so that we can discuss them and learners can decide for themselves what their points of view are, how much coincides with their own or not.
I also think even with a flawed system that we find in implementing human rights in the international community the alternate is not a desirable one so my personal point of view is find a view that aligns with yours maybe its human rights language maybe it’s not.
Listen to what human rights offers, at least be aware of what it is and what it can offer you and then in terms of if you’re ultimately a believer in human rights and has potential then lean in and support it, support its implementation as best as you can it doesn’t mean you don’t criticize but try to make it better in whatever ways you can, as a diplomat, as an activist, as an educator, whomever.
Policy seminar on peace education with UNESCO & Myanmar Ministry of Education. Photo by Felisa Tibbitts.
JF: and do you think the international community on all levels when it comes to the UN or local decision makers do they have the will or wish to consider these? Do they have the tools to make these constant reevaluations of human rights and try to progress it?
FT: Well political will is obviously really key when it comes to state behaviour. We know that there has been a rollback until recently in terms of the democratic space and increase in authoritarianism which has coincided with the restriction of civil society, rule of law and human rights. So there’s no question that there are real challenges when we look at human rights challenges internationally. We still have ongoing wars, genocides. How is this still happening with all that we know not only about human rights but also about human history in the past 125 years. So its really befuddling and discouraging for sure.
At the same time, I am an optimist and I am in education so I have to own up to that, but I think the recent statistics I saw shows the kind of rolling back into authoritarianism and eroding of democracy even in the those countries that are primarily democratic seems to be shifting, that we may have reached the lowest point already in terms of authoritarianism and it might be a swing back. That is not to say that it is a permanent one.
For those of us who thought that the Berlin Wall has come down, apartheid is over, it’s going to be, maybe it’s going to be more of these cycles in term of conservatism. Conservatism does not quite capture authoritarianism, I think conservatism is quite a respectable point of view. Authoritarianism is very specifically eroding democratic principles and ways of governance so that’s very separate.
But I have to say that my understanding from political scientists, who know more than I do, that we may have seen the worst of it in terms of recent history and we may be swaying back. I mean we still have lots of challenges mind you even in the countries that are still struggling to save some of that democratic processes and institutions, checks and balances and so forth. But those countries that are aligned with human rights, I would say most countries have some if not lip service a deep commitment to forwarding human rights. Again it might be forwarding human rights within their foreign policy interest but at least it’s still there. I think if that continues, human rights is seen as important as others.
Sadly, because of the phenomenon like the war in Ukraine it’s an important reminder of how important human rights and humanitarian law is. So we know that when a catastrophe happen, human rights comes to the fore again.
But I will say, Johanna, I actually think that those of us who are working, not in government, but working in civil society and working even in higher education we have also created more space for human rights. Let me give you an example, at the higher education level there are more human rights centres than ever. It used to be, 30 years ago, the human rights centre used to be at the law school because you essentially only studied human rights if you were studying human rights law. You didn’t see it anywhere else in the university and now in the last 15 to 20 years there are interdisciplinary centres for human rights that link sometimes in parallel with the law school human rights centre which gives opportunities to graduates, undergraduates and students of all levels whether they’re in the humanities or social sciences usually those two areas are those that study Human Rights so its expanding in favourable environments in certain higher education institutions absolutely expanding.
In terms of activist work, Human Rights is being pushed down into the local level. There is a global initiative called “Human Rights Cities” and this perspective brings our attention to our local government but the local government in conjunction with community members, community organizations and all kinds of individuals in the community who hold different positions and also just regular citizens to review the human rights framework, to review the problems the community might have and what might need to be addressed. This is linked up more recently in some European cities with being cities that welcome refugees for example, so with the refugees coming in and some of the pretensions that could bring in local communities using that as a way to discuss human rights more broadly.
So, I think there has been lots of movement in a positive way amongst those actors who are human rights oriented, like I mentioned higher education, human rights cities, human rights based approach which is kind of a conceptual approach but has real bearing in thinking about looking at organizations as a whole not as a human rights perspective.
Other things happening in the United Nations around nonstate actors, multinationals, corporate social responsibility so I think on the other side of some of these discouraging trends that are restricting human rights movement you know ability to use in certain country context and the ongoing critiques of human rights which will always be there, do you have these positive sides of evolution and change and so I do think that the movement continues and you know and it just binds new avenues to remain relevant basically and potent.
JF: I see I see. You mentioned a lot about the authoritarianism and the actual issues with monitoring the implementation of human rights and how in your own experiences as well you learnt properly what human rights was or how it works when you practically worked in it and went to the field. It is a large issue there are countries who partially or who does not fully respect human rights. As you mentioned there’s still so much human rights violation including genocide happening. Has this ever hindered you or felt like giving up in your career because of witnessing or learning about all these setbacks in the history and human rights?
FT: I think that’s a fair question. I think, Johanna, I have been fortunate because I work in the field of education and that field is sort of intrinsically optimistic and forward looking. So without a question, I have also shared the deep disappointment and concern of others not only human rights people but many of us around the authoritarianism and the world back and other challenges in Ukraine, and the ongoing conflict in the Middle East don’t seem to be resolved, refugees, climate change, there’s plenty to be discouraged about but in the day-to-day that I have like having a conversation with you or meeting my students tomorrow, I can focus on these moments of learning and engagement.
In some cases the human rights education and training I’m doing feeds immediately into social change and so sometimes I have the benefit of seeing that as I’m working with activists or I’m working with young people who eventually who get in careers in human rights or activism of some kind or so many ways you can be engaged in human rights without working for a human rights NGO or working at the UN at the Office of the Human Rights Commissioner, there are so many things to do.
So when I’m up close its really easy and for me as well I know with education its long term game. It may be 10 to 15 years from now where we see curriculum in schools resulting in more people knowing about what human rights are and what its potential is. In that respect, I can only count wins. I don’t see any failures per se at least in the work I’m doing. But I know from my colleagues who are working in other environments where you have certain litigation, where you want it to go through successfully or you are working on social change and its big cultural changes and maybe you don’t necessarily see it in your lifetime but I even think for people who are not in education like myself, they find their own ways to stay motivated.
You know the thing about human rights as a human rights worker, if you will, is to find your joy in it. For me the joy is teaching and for others I know love law and their joy is in that. If you’re in an NGO, the joy is partly who you get to work with like your colleagues despite these very discouraging conditions and phenomenon.
First of all I don’t feel like I have a choice. This is always what I had to do and the question for me is what is the best way for me to engage, what are the skillsets I have, what will feed me. It is really important in human rights work, in humanitarian emergencies or in any kind of work you are confronting suffering whether it’s really up close or personal or wider you need to find a way to keep yourself healthy and engaged. Even for you as a young person you’ll have decisions to make on what to study next, if you’re going to study anymore, where you’re going to put your energies in, whatever you decide to do it should feed you and keep you going in the long term because we need people like you and others in the long term working for human rights.
JF: Let’s talk about and move on to the active working for human rights and you yourself actually cofounded an organization called HREA. The abbreviation of it is the Human Rights Education Association. You founded that in 1996. Can you tell me a bit about the vision and mission of this organization.
FT: Sure! So, the name itself speaks about what the mission is Human Rights Education and that was deliberate. At that time, I was living in Amsterdam, and I cofounded this organization at a time when human rights education was somewhat new. I was working for the Dutch Helsinki Committee and the work I was doing was pretty different from my colleagues because as I mentioned earlier in this conversation, I was working in the schooling sector and that was very different and new in terms of the international human rights movement.
The person who confounded HREA with me Cristina Sganga, she was the first Human Rights Education person appointed at the International Secretariat of Amnesty International. We were both concerned at that time, and we were both aware I should say that our colleagues were not thinking of it as seriously as for example monitoring and research which is classically what human rights organizations do or in my case if my colleagues were doing human rights education, again it was not with schools but with prosecutors and all.
So we decided we should start an organization that would help focus on human rights training and education inside the international human rights movement and would give us an opportunity to really help professionalize it so that’s why we started it. It was not to start an NGO because it’s not fun starting an NGO, it’s a lot of work. Although it’s fun if you know the people you work with and you like them then it’s fun and hard work.
So that’s where HREA started, it started earlier on in the HREA or HRE kind of movement internationally and began from both our experiences in central eastern Europe primarily and sort of went from there.
The mission is to promote the use of education, training and learning inside the international human rights movement in order to promote all the goals we’re looking for in human rights, the realization of human rights. The organization works with civil society organizations, stakeholders and any learners interested to learn more.
JF: As you already mentioned your organization is already involved in a lot of different activities. You have e-learning courses, research, you take part in research with several international and local organizations and government organizations. What is the greatest achievement of this organization or what are you most proud of? Could you tell us a bit about this project?
FT: Sure. There are two things that HREA did that I am very pleased with. I am pleased with it because it felt like a real need at that time. One thing is we began an online research center for human rights and human rights education. There was time when there was no internet and when the internet came we thought let’s put all this wonderful information that we’ve been sharing by hand from place to place filling our suitcases with books for human rights activists.
So we started the online research center and it was really successful, thousands of resources. It made available to those interested in the human rights education but also to those who weren’t in a university setting so they couldn’t get access to human rights research online or conversely they were in a civil society organization and they just wanted to have an idea about what other people were doing so they could write their own curriculum. The online research center still exists but there are more out there now. At that time by 1998 we had an online research center which was well used. I still get good feedback from people who are in far off places and that this was the only way they could get human rights material at that time so that feels good still.
Second thing, we started in 2001 an online learning programme. this was before Canvas, Moodle, it was before Blackboard even, we developed our own infrastructure to offer online learning for adult learners, human rights, humanitarian development workers on topics and skills really welled for practice. We were interested in filling the gap for courses that people really couldn’t find at universities or even in trainings. But if they found them in trainings it was very expensive for the organizations to organize it because they had to travel somewhere or bring in a speaker. So wanted it to be relevant and really affordable. We offered at our peak 20 online courses a year to a range of adult learners, government and nongovernment, UN and so forth on topics ranging from strategic litigation to what I offered human rights education or the child rights-based approach to programming. So, the courses would basically evolve with what was happening in the field of needs.
So, I felt really proud of that Johanna because it was before online learning was a thing. We were out in front, we got some initial support from the Dutch Foreign Ministry and it just grew and at this there are many organizations that offer online learning like Amnesty International who has their own internal international professional development activities so we’re not filling a gap like we used to but I’m still offering courses. I’m still offering, for instance next week my online human rights education course is taking place and its filled and I am happy about that. Work does continue but happily people have more choices out there and resources which is wonderful for the field.
JF: My last question to you would be, as someone with so much experience, what would you recommend or advise to those who are entering this field right now and who are trying to find their career or own path in human rights or human rights education.
FT: Good question. It’s so precious when people are interested in human rights and human rights education. I have students at Columbia university who are self-identified as being interested in human rights. I will do anything to support their intellectual development and also to position themselves to make decisions about what they need to do next for example when they graduate from Columbia university. I think that there are unfortunately very few jobs in human rights, jobs meaning that those exclusively focused on human rights. I had mentioned some of the sectors earlier you might be involved in including the NGO sector, government, intergovernmental but there are so many ways you can be doing human rights.
There are two ways to answer this question if I may. The first is that to position yourself well to get a job with an organization whose mission is exclusively human rights, is to not only think about human rights but also get skillsets that organizations can use. Whether you work for Human Rights Watch or Amnesty International or you go work for the United Nations skill sets like project management, fund raising, social media, being able to develop training resources whatever your skillsets are needed by these organizations. Always remember to develop skillsets that can be used by an organization that may allow you to work in an organization focused on human rights. I’m not sure what people’s idea of what they might be doing but think about those skillsets and go on and get those law degrees or public policy degrees or education degrees you can still work in human rights.
The second strategy I have is to think more broadly about how you can be doing human rights. If you don’t work in an organization that is explicitly human rights related, there are so many ways that you can work towards what can be considered human rights goals. I had lunch with a former student of mine who had gone to law school, and she had attended originally to be part of the NGO sector for human rights, she realised if she worked for a law firm and uses their option to do their pro bono work she can do a lot of wonderful work for human rights NGOs supporting them with her legal advice. So just last week I had a conversation with a former student of mine who had graduated with a concentration in human rights from Columbia and she really wanted to be working full time in the human rights field. She had expected to go to law school and focus on refugee rights specifically and then proceed to work in an NGO. That was the plan, and the plans changed a bit. She is in law school but she has also been working in a private law firm and realised that she can do pro bono work through them and offer her services to the NGO sector in human rights. She’s just realized she can have a regular legal position and at the same time do the kind of work that she wants to do and so many other variations of how if you’re not working for a human rights organization per se or one that has a mission explicitly to that, you can do wonderful work either through your regular job like this young woman is going to do or through volunteerism.
So there’s just so many ways that you can contribute to international human rights movement. I would just say to you or anyone who is excited about human rights just to keep the spirit, do position yourself well through your education and your experience because your experience is really important to develop skillsets, to get field experience, position yourself well for full time human rights work and if that doesn’t work out for you for whatever reasons just to find other ways to do good things like this.
JF: Thank you very very much for your insights and for telling us about all your experience. It’s been a pleasure to talk to you. Thank you very much for your contribution today. Thank you very much for your talk. It has been very exciting to hear about your experience and thank you so much for the advice. I’m sure many of us who are pursuing this field can use lots of it. Thank you very much again today and for your time.
FT: My pleasure Johanna. Thank you for the opportunity to have a conversation with you.
JF: So this was the first episode of the Broken Chalk podcast. I hope to see you for the next episode as well. Good bye!
In Afghanistan’s rugged and culturally diverse landscape, education has always been an intricate tapestry woven with threads of resilience, determination, and hope. Despite decades of conflict, political turmoil, and economic instability, the pursuit of knowledge continues to ignite a flame of possibility within the hearts of the Afghan people. However, the path to education in Afghanistan is laden with numerous challenges that pose formidable obstacles to its realization.
In this article, we delve into the profound educational challenges that have plagued Afghanistan, shedding light on the systemic issues that have hindered progress and examining the far-reaching consequences for the country’s future.
By understanding the complexities of the educational landscape, we can uncover the potential solutions and interventions necessary to pave the way towards a brighter future for Afghan students.
The history of education in Afghanistan is a tale deeply intertwined with the country’s rich cultural heritage and the struggles it has endured over the centuries. Education has long been valued as a cornerstone of Afghan society, with early records indicating the existence of educational institutions as far back as the 11th century. Islamic schools, known as madrasas, played a crucial role in teaching religious studies and the Arabic language. During the 20th century, a wave of modernization and reforms sought to establish a formal education system, introducing secular schools and universities.[1] However, decades of conflict, including the Soviet invasion, civil wars, and the Taliban regime, severely disrupted the educational landscape. Schools were destroyed, teachers were displaced, and access to education became limited, particularly for girls.[2]
Educational Challenges
Gender Disparity
As mentioned above, one of the most pressing challenges faced by the education sector in Afghanistan is the pervasive gender disparity. Cultural norms and deep-rooted societal barriers have led to the exclusion of girls from schools, denying them access to the transformative power of education.[3]
During the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, which lasted from 1996 to 2001, access to education for girls was severely restricted and, in many cases, wholly denied. The Taliban implemented a strict interpretation of Islamic law, imposing a series of oppressive policies that targeted girls’ education. Girls were forbidden from attending schools, and educational institutions for girls were systematically shut down or repurposed for other uses. This denial of education deprived girls of their fundamental rights and perpetuated a cycle of illiteracy and limited opportunities for their futures. The Taliban’s restrictive policies affected formal schooling and limited women’s access to vocational training and higher education. The detrimental impact of these restrictions on girls’ education during the Taliban regime underscores the urgent need for ongoing efforts to ensure educational opportunities and gender equality for all Afghan children.[4]
After the fall of the Taliban regime, significant progress has been made in improving education for girls. With the establishment of a new government and the support of international organizations, a concerted effort has been made to promote gender equality and expand access to education. Schools that were previously closed or destroyed have been reopened, and new educational institutions have been established across the country. Numerous initiatives have focused on increasing girls’ enrollment and retention rates, ensuring safe learning environments, and providing resources and infrastructure. In collaboration with NGOs and international partners, the Afghan government has implemented policies to address cultural barriers and discriminatory practices that hinder girls’ education. As a result, millions of girls have gained the opportunity to attend school, pursue higher education, and broaden their horizons. The improved access to education for girls in Afghanistan since the fall of the Taliban regime represents a significant step towards empowering women, enhancing gender equality, and fostering the country’s social and economic development.[5]
However, the current situation for girls in Afghanistan following the Taliban’s takeover is a matter of deep concern and uncertainty. The Taliban’s return to power has raised fears about the potential rollback of hard-won gains in girls’ education. While the Taliban leadership has made statements indicating that they will allow girls to receive an education within the framework of their interpretation of Islamic law, the extent to which this will be upheld remains uncertain. Reports from various regions indicate that girls face barriers to education, with reports of schools being closed or converted to Islamic education centres. Additionally, there are concerns about the safety and security of female students, as the Taliban’s previous regime was notorious for its restrictions on women’s rights and education. The international community, along with local activists and organizations, is closely monitoring the situation and advocating for the protection of girls’ rights to education, which has already been significantly restricted.[6]
Poverty-related issues
Moreover, poverty and limited resources further exacerbate the educational challenges in Afghanistan. Insufficient funding, lack of infrastructure, and inadequate teacher training hinder the quality of education provided. Many schools operate in overcrowded classrooms, lacking basic amenities and learning materials. Additionally, the widespread prevalence of child labour and the need for children to contribute to their families income further impedes their access to education.
Limited access to quality schools and educational resources is a significant hurdle impoverished communities face. Many families struggle to afford necessities, let alone invest in their children’s education. As a result, child labour and early marriage often become alternatives to schooling. Additionally, widespread insecurity and conflict in some areas of the country threaten educational facilities and discourage attendance. These challenges contribute to a high illiteracy rate and perpetuate the cycle of poverty, limiting opportunities for socioeconomic advancement. Addressing the academic challenges related to poverty in Afghanistan requires a comprehensive approach involving targeted interventions, increased investment in education, and the provision of social support to vulnerable communities.[7]
In conclusion, the educational challenges concerning gender disparity and poverty in Afghanistan are deeply intertwined and pose significant obstacles to achieving a more equitable and prosperous society. The intersection of poverty and gender discrimination perpetuates a vicious cycle where girls and women from impoverished backgrounds face multiple barriers to accessing quality education. These challenges not only hinder their personal development but also restrict the overall progress and development of the nation. Efforts to address these challenges require a holistic approach that tackles poverty, gender inequality, and educational barriers simultaneously. By investing in inclusive and accessible education, empowering girls and women, and providing socioeconomic support to marginalized communities, Afghanistan can break the cycle of poverty and gender disparity, fostering a brighter future for all its citizens. Through concerted and sustained efforts, Afghanistan can overcome these challenges and ensure that every child, regardless of gender or socioeconomic background, has an equal opportunity to receive a quality education and fulfil their potential.
Bibliography
Baiza, Y. (2013). Education in Afghanistan: Developments, influences and legacies since 1901. Routledge.
Khwajamir, M. (2016). History and problems of education in Afghanistan. In SHS Web of Conferences (Vol. 26, p. 01124). EDP Sciences.
Mashwani, H. U. (2017). Female education in Afghanistan: Opportunities and challenges. International Journal for Innovative Research in Multidisciplinary Field, 3(11).
Ahmad, S. (2012). THE TALIBAN AND GIRLS EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN AND AFGHANISTAN–with a case study of the situation in the Swat District.
Alvi‐Aziz, H. (2008). A progress report on women’s education in post‐Taliban Afghanistan. International Journal of lifelong education, 27(2), 169-178.
Amiri, R., & Jackson, A. (2021). Taliban attitudes and policies towards education. ODI Centre for the Study of Armed Groups.
Ochilov, A. O., & Najibullah, E. (2021, April). HOW TO REDUCE POVERTY IN AFGHANISTAN. In E-Conference Globe (pp. 114-117)
[1] Khwajamir, M. (2016). History and problems of education in Afghanistan. In SHS Web of Conferences (Vol. 26, p. 01124). EDP Sciences.
[2] Baiza, Y. (2013). Education in Afghanistan: Developments, influences and legacies since 1901. Routledge.
[3] Mashwani, H. U. (2017). Female education in Afghanistan: Opportunities and challenges. International Journal for Innovative Research in Multidisciplinary Field, 3(11).
[4] Ahmad, S. (2012). THE TALIBAN AND GIRLS EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN AND AFGHANISTAN–with a case study of the situation in the Swat District.
[5] Alvi‐Aziz, H. (2008). A progress report on women’s education in post‐Taliban Afghanistan. International Journal of lifelong education, 27(2), 169-178.
The Arbitrary Arrest of Education Activist Matiullah Wesa
On 27 March 2023, human rights defender Matiullah Wesa was arbitrarily arrested after praying at a local mosque. When Matiullah Wesa stepped out from the mosque, he encountered gunmen with two vehicles who wanted to arrest him. Although Wesa asked for the IDs of the men, they showed their weapons and took Wesa away. Now, Wesa’s family is of great concern for his health and safety. Matiullah Wesa, aged 30, had been threatened before by the Taliban. Despite the threats to his safety, He didn’t leave Afghanistan and stayed to advocate boys’ and girls’ education rights.[1]
On the 27th of March, the UN Special Rapporteur stated that the human rights defender’s safety is the most important and his legal rights have to be respected. On the 28th of March, the UN Mission of Afghanistan (UNAMA) requested the reason behind the arrest of Matiullah Wesa and his location must be announced immediately.[2] Also, the demand for legal representation and contact with the family of Wesa has been expressed by UNAMA. The UN, Amnesty International and other human rights organizations call for urgent action for justice.
On March 29, a Taliban spokesman confirmed his arrest, citing “illegal activities” as the reason for Wesa’s arrest. Wesa’s family has been prohibited from seeing him, and there is no way to challenge the truth of the accusations made against him. After the arrest, the Taliban entered his house; and took phones, documents, and computers. The brothers of Matiullah were briefly held and then freed after receiving a warning.[3]
Matiullah Wesa campaigning for education in Afghanistan. Photo from Matiullah Wesa.
Matiullah Wesa’s Mission on Promoting Education Rights via PenPath
Matiullah Wesa is known as the most prominent education activist in Afghanistan with his campaigns via the organization PenPath. He established the education organization PenPath with his brothers in 2009.[4] His aim has been to improve and promote education access in all areas of Afghanistan. During his 14-year-old journey of education activism, he traveled to remote and rural parts of the country that were damaged by war and collaborated with the tribal leaders to open schools and libraries to educate children in need. He has been also bringing PanPath’s mobile schools and libraries and most importantly campaigning for women’s education. More than 100 schools have been reopened by Pen Path; and 110,000 kids, 66,000 of whom are girls, have been able to access educational facilities and resources.[5] Is Matiullah being punished for this?
He developed the PenPath network, which now has more than 3,000 volunteers around the nation.[6] They support local classroom setup, teacher recruitment, and supply distribution. He has continued to support girls’ education in his campaigns despite the ban on girls enrolling in secondary schools. He also launched a door to door campaign against the ban on girls’ education.
Wesa has long been an advocate for women’s education in Afghanistan, particularly in rural regions, and his Twitter feed is full of tweets urging for the reopening of schools to women and girls. His last tweet was “Men, women, elderly, young, everyone from every corner of the country is asking for the Islamic rights to education for their daughters,” before his arrest.[7] He was also planning to make a speech at a meeting about girls’ education prior to the situation. The Taliban have made unclear statements claiming Wesa’s activities as “suspicious” concerning his arrest. Although Wesa was not politically engaged, the Taliban’s exploitation of his public image is for their political gain.[8]
Matiullah Wesa’s detention demonstrates the de facto government’s effort to repress human rights advocates and those who speak up for female education rights. Hours before his detention, the human rights advocate was active on Twitter, highlighting the unavoidable and lasting effects of the closure of schools and the prohibition on girls’ education. It is a great reminder to us that consistent action and solidarity of the International community are needed to prevent women from losing their rights in Afghanistan.
Many people have expressed their outrage on social media over Matiullah Wesa’s arrest and called for his release. Wesa has been exercising his right to peaceful assembly and freedom of expression. According to international human rights law, particularly the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, to which Afghanistan is a state party, this arrest clearly violates the rights to freedom of expression and peaceful assembly.
The Exploitation of the Right to Education of Women, Minorities and Conflict-Victims in Afghanistan
Following the US-led invasion that overthrew the previous government in 2001, the Taliban came into power in 2021. With the withdrawal of the US’s remaining troops as decided in a 2020 peace agreement with the Taliban, the rule of law in Afghanistan has been changed drastically. The Taliban rule has brought barriers to the human rights of women and minorities, imposing a harsh interpretation of Islamic law.[9]
Since the Taliban came into power in August 2021, the women’s and girls’ right to education, work and free movement has been violated. This situation paved the way for the girls to be subject to discrimination, domestic violence and child marriages. The Taliban announced on March 21, 2022, that all schools would reopen on March 23, but on that day they once more closed secondary schools for girls. The situation has not changed after 1 year in 2023, more than 3 million girls have been denied secondary education.[10]
His active campaigns across Afghanistan with his organization Pen Path turned him into a target for the Taliban. Photo by Matiullah Wesa.
In November 2022, three women rights activists – Zarifa Yaqoobi, Farhat Popalzai and Humaira Yusuf – were arbitrarily arrested by the Taliban.[11] In December 2022, the Taliban prohibited women from attending universities “until further notice” and instructed all national and international NGOs to terminate the employment of all women on staff “until further notice”.
The Ministry of Higher Education pointed out that the problem derives from Immorality including the presence of female students in dorms, traveling from the provinces without a mahram, failure to observe the hijab wearing and the presence of mixed classes. Banning women from higher education, they were instructed to enroll in public universities near their homes while they are prohibited to study law, commerce, journalism, engineering, agriculture and veterinary medicine.[12] According to the Taliban, closures are temporary, yet authorities blame logistics rather than ideological barriers.
Not only women are deprived of their main right to have an education but religious and ethnic minorities have been suffering from a lack of education and several attacks on educational facilities. According to the UN report on Afghanistan by Richard Bennett, Hazara Community was targeted by 16 attacks, including three against educational institutions. And, Attack on the Kaaj Educational Center on September 30, 2022, left 114 people injured and 54 people dead.[13]
Conflict-related education rights abuses are another important issue to be addressed in Afghanistan. The UN Special Reporter also examined reports that show a huge increase in the recruitment and use of children as soldiers during the past years. Additionally, the rapid rise in attacks against schools, students and educational personnel, nearly eight times per year, has been reported between January and September 2022.[14] The children do not feel safe about their future by not getting proper education and their life by being in the ongoing conflict.
Other Targeted Activists by the Taliban
The Wesa brothers are the most recent arbitrary arrest targeted at society activists and protesters who have spoken out against the closure of education rights for girls and women. The report released in February by UNAMA shows 28 civil society actors and human rights defenders got arbitrarily arrested and 10 journalists and media workers were also arrested to be seen as a threat in the past three months.[15]
No society is able to reach its potential to be developed without activists and human rights defenders to bring consciousness to the people. The historical, geopolitical and religious aspects always play a role in the faith of a nation but civil society could also make it possible for authorities to see their mistake to elevate their people. In the case of this situation in Afghanistan, there must be a double effort by the international community to regain women’s essential human rights in the country.
The education system in the Republic of Congo (Congo Brazzaville) is a kaleidoscope of realities, shortcomings and consequences of colonialism. At the same time, with an incredible potential to provide new generations with opportunities for development, sustainability and new socio-political and cultural challenges.
This article will present various aspects of the education system in the Republic of Congo, exploring its characteristics, historical contexts, current challenges, international and internal initiatives to improve and develop education in the country. In addition, it will be imperative to analyse the academic paper presented by Dzanvoula Cheri Thibaut Gael, entitled “Promoting Teacher Retention in the Republic of the Congo: Case Study of Primary Schools” (2019).
Furthermore, it is essential to note the connection of the development of the educational system over the years with the different countries in Equatorial Africa, related by the strong influence of France on the region, also marking the national language with administrative systems linked to a colonial past, something that would damage the future of the Congo and its neighbouring countries.
This article will focus on presenting an objective and comprehensive view of the challenges and opportunities in the Congolese education system. An in-depth analysis will highlight the efforts and progress made by the country, as well as the areas where work and attention are still needed to achieve a more inclusive and effective education system.
Context of the country
The Republic of Congo presents different contexts which directly influence the development of the education system. These contexts are political, social, economic and, above all, its colonial past.
Historical context (with colonial past):
David E. Gardinier posits that Equatorial Africa’s French colonial rule substantially influenced Congo’s current educational structure. From the mid-19th to the 20th century, Protestant and Catholic missions were vital in initiating education along the Gabon Estuary. These centres aimed to prepare clergy, catechists, and teachers within a religious framework.
The French colonial government promoted the French language and culture while curtailing the rise of the liberally educated intelligentsia, which could trigger anti-colonial movements. Instead, the administration prioritised grooming practically trained primary school graduates intended to serve as European auxiliaries and intermediaries.
Meanwhile, the Congo Basin experienced several exploitative policies for natural resource extraction, leading to grave environmental and societal repercussions. Following WWII decolonisation, Congo was left with a basic economy heavily reliant on farming. French remained the central language of instruction, and education was intensely focused on French culture, with further educational advancement considered unreachable.
In 1934, Congo dedicated less than 1% of its budget to education, leading to under-equipped schools. Independence was achieved by 1960, yet Congo continued to rely on France for higher education progress. Towards the 20th century latter half, Congo managed to establish a universal primary education system, but this was tightly tethered to the French system. Institutions for higher education were predominantly in France. Post-independence Congo grappled with inadequate educational infrastructure, overpopulated classrooms, and a significant attrition rate among students and teachers.
Sociopolitical Context:
Since 2021, Anatle Collinet has been democratically elected as the new prime minister, and his policies focus on institutional, economic, social and educational promotion and growth. Congo has a human capital index of 0.42%. It has lagged for decades in progress in health and education, with statistics showing that only 30% of children attend primary school, and only 40% achieve high proficiency in mathematics and French. The country is also in a severe crisis regarding infant mortality, with more than 33 deaths per 1,000 births. Similarly, the infrastructure of public services, such as electricity, is only 66% in urban areas and only 15% in rural areas. On the other hand, access to clean and potable water is below 74% in urban areas and 46% in rural areas, placing it below its hydrological potential.
Economic context:
According to World Bank reports for the Republic of Congo, the country presents extreme poverty, with 52% of the population in 2021, with an economic contraction between 2020 and 2021. These indicators show an economic dependence on oil prices, which fell sharply during the Covid-19 pandemic. The country also has a stable inflation rate of 2% in 2021 and 3.2% in 2022. The GTP’s economic growth is estimated at 4.% in 2023 and 2024, directly linked to risks in international oil price variations. This could positively or negatively affect the development and implementation of education policies.
Education of the Republic of the Congo:
The education system in the country, structured after its independence as a French colony, has undergone several changes and approaches over the decades. Currently, the Republic of Congo has a free and compulsory education system for young people aged 6 to 16. It is classified into two levels: primary education starts at the age of 6 and lasts for six years. During this time, they are taught agricultural techniques, domestic science and manual skills. Then there is secondary-level education, which has two cycles, with four and three years of study; courses are offered in vocational training, academic and technical training, general education, and teacher training.
It is important to note that the country has consolidated higher education institutions over the decades. The university that stands out the most is Marien Ngouabi University, and it has also managed to structure colleges and centres for specialised and technical training.
Young students at the Mugosi Primary School, Kitschoro. Photo by M. Hofer, UNESCO.
Challenges
During the last decades of the Republic of Congo’s socio-economic, political and cultural development, the country has presented challenges in its education system, which have remained constant until today.
Within the report presented by UNICEF for 2020 to 2022, one of the most pressing issues confronting the country is the underdevelopment of pre-primary education possibilities. This issue has far-reaching repercussions for the country’s educational environment and residents’ prospects. The quality of primary education is also inadequate, resulting in only 60% of children attending secondary education, and in the case of higher education, the percentage is even higher. On the other hand, the country has a very high repetition rate per class in primary schools. In the case of vocational education, more is needed to meet the needs of the market and the country’s economy. Another critical challenge is the long list of inequalities that still exist in the country’s regions, according to geography or ethnicity.
Teachers attrition
Despite these challenges, one situation threatens the future and the capacity for development in the education system. This is the retention of teachers in primary schools, which are one of the fundamental pillars of the education system and the academic preparation of children.
According to a study presented in 2019 with the title “Promoting Teacher Retention in the Republic of the Congo: Case Study of Primary Schools” by the Zhejiang Normal University of China, most teachers in the country become teachers by accident rather than as vocation, with a very high rate of teachers resigning from their jobs in primary schools. Within the study, the teachers who took part in the surveys had all failed their entry exams as secondary school teachers, showing several factors that encouraged career change and resignations. It is estimated that the country has approximately 23,000 teachers, and to achieve adequate coverage of the education sector, 48,000 teachers would be needed, with primary education being the most affected sector. In a 2015 UNICEF report, Congo has more than 529,000 pupils compared to 15,000 teachers, which means that the workload and quality of education are very low.
The study conducted by the Zhejiang Normal University of China found that the motivating elements influence teachers to enter and remain in the primary school teaching business. Most teachers entered the field due to a lack of alternative job possibilities after graduating from university and failing the admission test for secondary teacher training institutes. Although some instructors saw teaching as a passion, most teachers noted a lack of motivating elements for staying in the primary school sector for a lengthy period.
Poor working conditions, poor compensation, and a lack of resources all led to low job satisfaction, which resulted in significant teacher turnover. According to the findings, intrinsic variables such as personal worth, respect, and reputation are more important than extrinsic criteria such as money and promotions in determining teacher turnover and attrition. Finally, intrinsic and extrinsic variables influence teacher turnover and attrition in the primary school sector.
Ambitions, expectations and plans
According to UNICEF, in its report presented for 2020-2022, the Republic of Congo seeks to use education as a lever to develop the economy’s future, diversify it and integrate it into the global economy. Its main objective is to train and educate its population to become a highly skilled and competitive workforce. The report details the strategies the country will have between 2015 and 2025, developed with the full participation of three ministries in charge of the country’s education system. It sets three essential points, focusing on the actions of the education system.
Strategies
The first point of this strategy is to provide and guarantee a 10-year education for all Congolese children. This strategy would focus on primary education, with essential competencies, and include a first level of secondary education, with all vocational and technical options. Also, as an alternative to general education, the creation of technical schools to provide more significant employment and economic opportunities for rural or underprivileged areas to attend formal education. Similarly, this strategy seeks to provide non-formal literacy programmes for children or young adults who have dropped out of school.
Science education to develop a mathematic and scientific culture. As a second strategy, it seeks to ensure a good match between education and the country’s economic needs by developing high school programmes that prepare students for more advanced academic and professional work demands. On the other hand, it aims for technical high schools to produce and generate competencies relevant to the economic needs of the Republic of Congo. Furthermore, education should have a social development focus.
As a third strategy, the Republic of Congo seeks to strengthen and enable the development of the education sector through two programmes, “Information & Steering” and “management”. These are aimed at enabling the government to have good tools to implement different strategies.
For the development and support of these strategies, the government has a budget of about US $10 million, which will also allow it to establish the main components of these strategies, which are structured in three sections.
As a first area of the programme, it seeks to increase equity in primary education through packages of activities to improve the conditions of schools in Cuvette-Ouest and Plateau. In these places, the percentage of repetition among students is high, and the attendance ratio by gender of students is lower for girls compared to other regions and departments of the country. According to the UNICEF report, the programme would support the construction of classrooms, teaching materials, drinking water and sanitation infrastructure, as well as support the development of school feeding programmes and the distribution of school kits.
As a second component, the programme aims to improve and enhance the quality of learning through in-service teacher training for volunteer teachers and the distribution of teaching materials, including books and exercises. The program activities will supplement efforts covered by other funding sources in the education sector plan, including IDA-financed programs, and will assist volunteer instructors nationally.
The third component seeks an increase in efficiency through measures that contribute to lower repeat rates. The initiative will fund an investigation into the reasons for repetition and modifying government policies that control how schools choose promotion and repetition. Technical assistance will be offered to facilitate the organisation and administration of curriculum updates, which encompasses the incorporation of pre-primary education, examination and pinpointing of educational methods that can be expanded, enhanced alignment between fundamental education and vocational or technical training, as well as the implementation of a 10-year foundational education period. The latter component also includes support in renewing the system for managing databases, which support the yearbooks.
World Bank Report
Furthermore, in a report presented in January 2022 by the World Bank, the government of the Republic of Congo developed a new National Development Plan for 2022 to 2026. It emphasises economic diversification to diminish vulnerabilities and steer the nation towards robust, resilient, and all-encompassing growth. It also established a partnership between the World Bank and the country until 2025, called the Country Partnership Framework (CPF). In line with the government’s goals, the CPF seeks to assist the country in improving economic governance, fostering a business climate that encourages economic diversification, fortifying its human resources, and improving the delivery of essential public services, particularly in the areas of health, education, and social welfare. As of September 2, 2022, the World Bank’s portfolio included 14 domestic projects and two regional projects totalling $788.96 million in commitments supported by IDA, IBRD, and Trust Funds.
Gael, D. C. T. (2019). Promoting Teacher Retention in the Republic of the Congo: Case Study of Primary Schools. Journal of Educational System.
Gardinier, D. E. (1974). Schooling in the States of Equatorial Africa. Canadian Journal of African Studies/La Revue Canadienne Des Études Africaines, 8(3), 517–538. https://doi.org/10.1080/00083968.1974.10804447
We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. By clicking “Accept All”, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. However, you may visit "Cookie Settings" to provide a controlled consent.
This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience.
Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. These cookies ensure basic functionalities and security features of the website, anonymously.
Cookie
Duration
Description
cookielawinfo-checkbox-analytics
11 months
This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-functional
11 months
The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-necessary
11 months
This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-others
11 months
This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other.
cookielawinfo-checkbox-performance
11 months
This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance".
viewed_cookie_policy
11 months
The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. It does not store any personal data.
Functional cookies help to perform certain functionalities like sharing the content of the website on social media platforms, collect feedbacks, and other third-party features.
Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better user experience for the visitors.
Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc.
Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads.
