Educational Challenges – Page 9

Educational Challenges in Suriname

Written by Yehia Murad

Bridging the Educational Gulf: Unveiling Suriname’s Urban-Interior Disparity and the Imperative for Inclusive Reform

Introduction

The right to education is a fundamental human right, enshrined in international conventions and recognized as a cornerstone of personal and societal development. In 2015, the UN adopted the Sustainable Development Goals initiative (SDGs) as a universal call for global economic and human development to be achieved by 2030.ⁱ Quality education is ranked number 4 among the SDG list, with goals that intend to eradicate gender disparity, illiteracy, and unaffordable education. This article addresses the educational challenges of Suriname, a country that is situated on the north-eastern tip of the South American continent, with a rich history and a vibrant culture. Although Suriname is signatory to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Agenda, the South American state stands as a testament to the enduring struggle for human rights, particularly the right to education. Looking at Suriname’s education system, this right remains elusive for many ethnic groups in its civil society, particularly among marginalised groups who grapple with the intricate web of political, social, and economic challenges that cast shadows upon their educational aspirations and limit access to such opportunities.

Both the quality and quantity of education depends on the capacity of the state to provide public services to its people. To address such challenges in education, it is essential that we look at Suriname’s state institutions, its ethnic cleavages, and the state’s capacity in delivering public services for its people. A strong state capacity is crucial for the provision of education, as the quality of education often reflects the state’s ability to ensure a monopoly over the use of force.ⁱⁱ This monopoly is essential in maintaining order and stability within the state’s territory, creating an environment conducive to the establishment and maintenance of educational institutions. Moreover, exercising jurisdiction over its territory allows the state to implement and enforce educational policies effectively.ⁱⁱⁱ As the state expands its apparatus, it inevitably includes remote areas into its territory, which is significant for educational provision. This inclusion not only extends the reach of educational policies and resources to these previously marginalized regions but also integrates them into the broader socio-economic framework of the state. Thus, the expansion and strengthening of state capacity play a pivotal role in enhancing the quality and accessibility of education across the entire territory, contributing to the overall development and prosperity of the nation. In addition, assessing a country’s state capacity involves its jurisdictional limitations within its own people, whether it has the capacity to regulate certain cities and communities more efficiently.

1.2 The Problem

According to a report by UNESCO in 2020, Suriname has been struggling with an education system characterised by high drop-out and repetition, with low passing rates from primary to secondary education (an average that hovers between 50 and 60%). Furthermore, education in Suriname is also marked by deep disparities between urban and rural areas.

According to a report in 2007 by the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC), major disparities exist in the delivery and quality of education between the coastal areas and the interior of the country, where a large quantity of primary schools in the latter are managed by teachers with limited training.^iv Suriname is divided into three distinct areas: rural, urban, and the “interior”. The government is in the capital city of Paramaribo (urban), where the majority of the population is also based. The rural areas constitute the northern coastal zone, which encompasses the districts of Coronie, Nickerie, Commewijne, and Saramacca. Lastly, the ‘interior’ is retained for the sparsely populated and forest covered hinterland that covers part of the Amazon, stretching towards the southern border with Brazil.

Remoteness is a major contributing factor for educational inequality in Suriname, in addition to its diverse ethnic composition, gender, incarceration, and poverty. Ethnic composition and remoteness are indirectly correlated and could be evocative of Suriname’s weak state capacity to deliver public services. This article addresses how both remoteness and ethnic diversity are the main obstacles for the state to increase its capacity in providing education as public service.

State Capacity and Institutions

2.1 Commitments to Education

Suriname has ratified a multitude of international and regional human rights procedures, placing various responsibilities for the state to ensure the education of indigenous and tribal peoples. Such procedures include the International Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), the International Convention on Eliminating all Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP). These multilateral instruments abet the rights of tribal and indigenous peoples to (1) have access to quality education without any forms of discrimination, and (2) establish their institutions and educational systems, providing education in their own languages, in a manner appropriate to their cultural methods of teaching and learning.^v

The binding state must comply with these rights, taking measures ‘in conjunction with indigenous peoples, in order for indigenous individuals, particularly children, including those living outside their communities, to have access to an education in their own culture provided in their own language’.^vi Suriname is also binding to additional regional instruments, such as the Organization of American States (OAS) and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), which compels the state to commit to (1) the reduction of disparities in education between indigenous and non-indigenous peoples, and (2) provide all Caribbean peoples with opportunities for constructive learning and personal growth in knowledge, skills, and attitudes from the earliest years of life, from the school system into the workplace.^vii

2.2 Government Policy

Suriname’s constitution, drafted in 1992, guarantees the right to compulsory, free, and equal education.^viii In addition, the constitution explicitly states that it is within its obligation to eradicate illiteracy and enable all citizens to attain the highest levels of education. With regards to Suriname’s diverse ethno-linguistic demographics, the government developed a development plan for the period 2017-2021 with a goal for an education system that reflects the multi-ethnic, multicultural and multilingual Surinamese society. The plan dedicates the design of programmes that would make education more accessible for all segments of society, including young and older citizens.^ix Most importantly, the plan recognises the lack of quality education in the ‘interior’ region, explicitly citing challenges such as the ‘lack of fully certified, insufficient physical infrastructure, the language barrier, the distance from home to school, and the lack of good and safe drinking water and continuity of electricity’.^x

The Ministry of Education drafted a comprehensive ‘Implementation Plan for Education in the Interior’ for the period between 2008 and 2015^xi. The plan attempts to undergird the construction and the restoration of classrooms and schools, increasing the percentage of households who can speak Dutch, and increasing the number of qualified teachers. However, in 2012, the President of Suriname, Bouterse, ended the special education policies for the interior, claiming the lack of necessity to have a distinctive policy for education in the district.

3 Educational Status Between Urban and Interior

The disparity in education exists between the interior areas, specifically the district of Sipaliwini, and the urban areas, where the former repeat classes more frequently, leave school earlier, and score substantially lower than their peers in urban areas on the standardised tests^xii. In addition, children in the Sipaliwini district complete primary education much later than their peers in the urban areas: in 2008, 1.2% of indigenous and maroon children completed primary school before the age of 12, in contrast to 24% of urban children^xiii. From 1986-1992, the ‘interior’ region of Suriname witnessed an armed conflict which resulted in the destruction of the region’s key infrastructure, including bridges, roads, schools, and housing^xiv. The Government of Suriname (2003) submitted a report to the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, in which it acknowledges the abandonment of education in the interior, with students having to cover long distances, and a lack of sufficient housing for teachers.^xv Since Dutch is the main language, education is completely in this language, with books and other materials completely in Dutch.^xvi However, children in the interior regions of Sipaliwini speak their own tribal language at home.

3.1 Schools

The interior also lacks sufficient secondary schools, with 2 out of the 59 junior public secondary schools being in Sipaliwini, and no senior secondary schools^xvii. Due to the lack of secondary schools, the majority of students from the Sipaliwini attend secondary school in Paramaribo, the capital, which can be very costly for their parents, who need to pay for materials, uniforms, and boarding school. In an interview by UNESCO (2020), Loreen Jubitana, director of the Association of Indigenous Village leaders in Suriname, states that children experience a culture shock when they move to the city for school, and this is the main cause for dropouts.^xviii In addition, conditions of schools in Sipaliwini are deteriorating, with a lack of access to drinking water and low electricity.^xix

3.2 Teachers

Another significant disparity between remote and urban areas is the former’s lack of qualified teachers. There are four training institutes for training in Suriname, none of them are in the interior region. Even though the recently graduated teachers are expected to teach at the interior for 5 years before taking up a position in the capital, they are unwilling to go to the interior due to the lack of electricity and drinkable water. The lack of adequate infrastructure within schools, housing, transportation, and logistics reduces the incentive for qualified teachers to live in the interior.

4. Conclusion

Both indigenous peoples and maroon groups have preserved their own forms of governance and are formally acknowledged so far that the tribal leaders receive a monthly stipend from the government. Although culturally distinct from each other, indigenous and maroon communities share a strong socio-economic and spiritual link with the natural environment. Notwithstanding ongoing modernisation processes, both groups, especially those situated further away from urban centres, are largely still dependent on the forest for their subsistence (hunting, fishing and rotational agriculture); housing, transportation in the form of dugout canoes and health care, using medicinal plants for a range of remedies.

The government of Suriname must reform its education system to become more inclusive to its diverse population. To introduce a more inclusive education system, the state must empower the local governments of the interior, which will also simultaneously increase its capacity to deliver other public services. Empowering local governments is crucial for data collection, opening the channels of communication between local governments at the grassroots, and the central government.

The Surinamese government must increase its monopoly over the use of force, simply by increasing its capacity to regulate its territory, and open channels of communication with its indigenous populations. To do so, the government must compromise to avoid polarisation between the interior and the urban areas of the country. Concessions in the form of political representation must be made to the indigenous peoples of Suriname. Lastly, the government needs to design incentives for teachers working in the interior, in addition to the investment in the development of locally based teachers. Public service provisions, including housing, healthcare, and amenities must be provided.

Image Source: https://www.pexels.com/photo/the-flag-of-suriname-13966908/

Reference List

i UNDP. (n.d.) “The SDGs in Action” ://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals/quality-education

ii Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2019). The Narrow Corridor: States, Societies, and the Fate of Liberty. Penguin Press. ISBN (paperback) 9780735224407; ISBN (e-book) 9780735224391

iii Weber, M. (1919). “Politics as a Vocation.” In H. H. Gerth & C. Wright Mills (Trans. & Eds.), From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (pp. 77-128). Oxford University Press.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305279035_Politics_as_a_Vocation_by_Max_Weber_in_Weber%27s_Rationalism_and_Modern_Society_edited_and_translated_by_Tony_Waters_and_Dagmar_Waters

iv UNESCO (2020). “Rurality and Education in Suriname: Education and Inclusion of Remote Populations in Suriname”. Global Education Monitoring Report. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000374773

v UNESCO (2020). “Rurality and Education in Suriname: Education and Inclusion of Remote Populations in Suriname”. Global Education Monitoring Report.

vi United Nations. (2007). “United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples”. https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/DRIPS_en.pdf

vii Caribbean Community (CARICOM). (2018). CARICOM HRD 2030 strategy. https://issuu.com/caricomorg/docs/caricom-hrd-2030-strategy

viii Suriname. (1987). Constitution of Suriname. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Surinam_1992

ix Government of Suriname. (2017). “Ontwikkelingsplan” [Development Plan] 2017-2021.https://www.planningofficesuriname.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/OP-2017-2021- Ontwikkelingsprioriteiten-van-Suriname-1.pdf

Government of Suriname. (2017). “Ontwikkelingsplan” [Development Plan] 2017-2021.

x Government of Suriname. (2017). “Ontwikkelingsplan” [Development Plan] 2017-2021.

xi MINOW (2008). “Implementatieplan Onderwijs Binnenland” [Implementation Plan for the Education of the Interior]. Paramaribo https://www.studocu.com/row/document/anton-de-kom-universiteit-van-suriname/public-sector-management/sectorplan-onderwijs-2004-2008-finaal-concept/1139003

xii United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 2007. Concluding Observations, Suriname, CRC/C/SUR/Co/2. https://bit.ly/350oRtT

xiii United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 2007. Concluding Observations, Suriname, CRC/C/SUR/Co/2.

xiv UNESCO (2020). “Rurality and Education in Suriname: Education and Inclusion of Remote Populations in Suriname”. Global Education Monitoring Report.

xv Government of Suriname (2003), “Report submitted to the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination”, CERD/C/446/Add.1, 1 October 2003. https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CER D%2fC%2f446%2fAdd.1&Lang=en

xvi Government of Suriname (2003), “Report submitted to the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination”, CERD/C/446/Add.1, 1 October 2003.

xvii UNESCO (2020). “Rurality and Education in Suriname: Education and Inclusion of Remote Populations in Suriname”. Global Education Monitoring Report.

xviii UNESCO (2020). “Rurality and Education in Suriname: Education and Inclusion of Remote Populations in Suriname”. Global Education Monitoring Report.

xix

Educational Challenges Suriname

Educational Challenges in the United Kingdom

The United Kingdom is one of the countries that welcomes the largest number of international students into its institutions, especially to its renowned universities. However, the system is not without its challenges, dominated by budget cuts in state-funded education, endemic inequalities across society that permeate the education system, and the attainment gap between rich and poor students, which at the time of writing stands at 3.2%. [[i]][[ii]]

The structure of the education system varies slightly across the UK, as it is a matter of the government in each country: England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Generally, there are five stages of education: early years or pre-school, primary, secondary, further education and higher education. All children in the age of compulsory education – from 5 to 16 – are entitled to a free place at a state school, which can be more or less elitist. As of January 2023, there were around 9 million pupils in state-funded schools, and over 2 million were eligible for free school meals. Free school meals are used to identify children from disadvantaged backgrounds.[[iii]]

Over the past decade, the UK has been governed by the Conservative Party, now led by Prime Minister Rishi Sunak. Recently, the country has dealt with the exit of the UK from the European Union – a process known as ‘Brexit’ – and the Covid-19 pandemic. The pandemic left millions of children in lockdown and exacerbated existing inequalities. This exposed the shortcomings of the education system and perpetuated the attainment gap.

Budget cuts

Underfunding is one of the most pressing problems in the British educational system. This places a tremendous amount of strain on state-funded schools. The Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS) reports that the 2019–2020 school year saw the most significant reduction in per-pupil spending in more than 40 years. This leads to increasing class numbers and student-teacher ratio, a shortage of resources, and even a reduction in teaching hours. There has reportedly been a 258% increase in secondary students in classes with 36 or more students since 2010. The provision of tailored and individualised attention is compromised by class sizes and reductions in support programmes, particularly for children with special educational needs. [[iv]]

Additionally, teachers are taking a big toll due to the budget cuts, as schools are forced to downsize staff. This results in teachers taking on extra duties and working an average of 55 hours per week. The working conditions and increasing pressure to provide individualised teaching without enough means are making some teachers reconsider their career path, with approximately half of the teachers in maths, sciences and languages quitting after five years. Moreover, they often seem to prefer working in private institutions, with a less diverse student population to attend, which requires less additional workload. [[v]]

Cuts to the budget also make some schools’ limited access to technology worse. The shift to distant schooling due to the pandemic exposed and exacerbated already-existing technologically-induced educational disparities. Children from higher poverty and economically unstable neighbourhoods have disproportionately inadequate access to technology. In the modern world, a lack of a laptop or an Internet connection puts one’s access to opportunities at risk. Private schools typically have superior resources to equip their pupils with the most recent technology than state schools, even offering equipment that the students can take home. The government should try to provide state schools with adequate funding that responds to evolving educational needs.

While it is true that since 2020, the effects of COVID-19 have put extra pressure on the government, civil society actors and journalists demand the government to do better. For instance, the NGO 1 Hour Life highlights that of the £15 billion recommended by the education recovery commissioner for England, the government only established a £1.4 billion Covid catch-up budget. [[vii]] Furthermore, Sonia Sodha reflects in The Guardian that the government’s policies have neglected the child’s best interests both before and after the pandemic. [[viii]]

Inequality and the attainment gap

Social inequalities have a significant effect on children and young people’s education. The UK is a country where this is particularly prominent, with a noticeable difference in performance in children from poor and wealthier backgrounds. From their early years, children are affected by the disproportion of resources. State schools in more impoverished areas, like some inner-city areas, are more affected by budget cuts as government spending per student continues to decrease. Implementation of support programmes is also inequal in some regions across England. For example, the North-East region saw a smaller implementation of Covid support programmes than schools in the South. Regarding ethnicity, in a country that is well-known for its multicultural urban areas, it’s generally students from Gypsy, Roma and Irish Traveller backgrounds who struggle the most because of higher illiteracy and language barriers among their parents. Some children with an uncertain legal status after Brexit or seeking asylum might also experience additional barriers to accessing education. [[ix]][[x]]

A family’s wealth and well-being have a significant impact on students. Almost one in 50 children across the UK miss more than half the time they should be in school because families can’t afford transportation costs, uniforms, school supplies, or school meals. This is more than double from before the pandemic. [[xi]] Despite the free school meals allowance, around a third of children experiencing poverty are not entitled to it. Some children report not eating anything during school time, hiding at lunchtime to avoid watching their peers eat or being shamed for receiving the allowance. This is because an apparent differentiation between children with free school meals and the rest is made: they are only entitled to a limited selection of items at the canteen. The UK should perhaps take notice of other European countries that provide standardised meals for all students. [[xii]] Controlling canteen prices is also important so that child health stops being a profitable market to exploit and that children can develop properly.

The UK must work harder to bridge the attainment gap between poor and rich students. In its voluntary national review of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals, the government promised that no student would be left behind and fair opportunities would be ensured regardless of socioeconomic differences. [[xiii]] In the long term, social inequalities that the education system fails to redress are life-changing, resulting in higher drop-outs, lower grades, lower than average earnings, increased criminality, and less presence in high-powered positions.

In the UK, where you study matters. And where you end up studying after compulsory education is highly influenced by where you study your primary and secondary education, which in turn is related to your family’s wealth. For example, in 2020, 8 elite schools, including two state schools, sent more pupils to Oxford and Cambridge than almost 3,000 other UK state schools. Although the number of young people accessing university continues to increase, socioeconomic inequalities continue to be perpetuated again in the higher education system. Students not graduating from universities with a perceived ‘legacy’ and prestige typically miss out on high-powered jobs because of prejudice from employers in the country. [[xiv]] ‘Legacy’ and ‘prestige’ immediately point to the University of Cambridge and the University of Oxford. They’re not the only ones, however. There are 24 universities, including these, which belong to the Russell Group – perhaps the closest version to a British Ivy League.

British Prime Ministers and cabinet members historically attended specific colleges in these institutions. Before that, they are typically educated in all kinds of non-state, privately funded institutions with prestige. A total of 30 out of 57 Prime Ministers have been educated at Oxford, and 20 have been educated at Eton College, which has a yearly fee of £48,000. The elitism that persists in positions of power and the most influential law or accounting firms is an example of the uneven spread of opportunities to enter the most prestigious positions. It also shows the profound classism that persists in the country, where people born in certain wealth and in certain areas have access to significantly better-funded education. [[xv]]

Even at a higher education level, England has one of the highest university fees in Europe: around £9,000 a year. Students typically take government loans to subsidise the cost of their studies. On the other hand, Scotland provides free university tuition for undergraduate courses for all Scottish students, aiming to achieve an inclusive education. Tuition fees, however, are not the only costs associated with university studies: with an exploitative renting market and rising living costs, 63% of students struggle to pay for their living expenses, and two in five consider dropping out of their courses. [[xvi]]

Students playing croquet at Eton College in the 1970s / Picture by Annie Spratt via Pexels

Final remarks

It is worth mentioning that other important issues should be addressed when talking about issues in the British education system. These are topics like discrimination, increasing bullying, and prominent peer-on-peer sexual harassment. These need to be explored more deeply in further articles. This article has focused on endemic inequalities in the education system in the UK to highlight how the profoundly classist system works. At the moment, the UK proves to be a country with endemic inequalities that affect where students study, the quality of their education due to poor funding, and the ongoing struggles due to costs associated with education and the increasing cost of living. It seems to be a system that rewards those students born and graduated into privilege.

Under the Conservative government, it is a country that has been continuously cutting down on public spending on education and public services, which would redress the effects of poverty and reduce the attainment gap. An argument can be made that addressing the digital divide, the inequalities within school populations, and redressing budget cuts is highly expensive. And it is. Nonetheless, education is a fundamental right, crucial for the development of children and the basis for a democratic society. A country that only rewards those who can afford private education and private services is doomed to be ruled by elites and have endemic inequalities. Currently, pressing challenges persist in the UK to bridge the attainment and opportunities gap between children and young people from different socioeconomic backgrounds.

References

[i] Studee. (2023). 10 most popular countries for international students. https://studee.com/guides/10-most-popular-countries-for-international-students/

[ii] Explore education statistics. (2023, September 12). Academic year 2022/23: Key stage 2 attainment. UK Government Department for Education, Explore education statistics. https://explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk/find-statistics/key-stage-2-attainment

[iii] Department for Education. (2023). Education system in the UK. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/219167/v01-2012ukes.pdf

[iv] Weale, S. (2023, October 18). Cuts could reduce education in England to ‘bare bones’, headteachers say. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2023/oct/18/risk-of-education-in-england-being-reduced-to-bare-bones-headteachers-say

[v] 1 Hour Life. (2022, February 3). 5 Challenges in Education Today in the UK. https://1hourlife.org/challenges-in-education/

[vi] 1 Hour Life. (2022, February 3). 5 Challenges in Education Today in the UK. https://1hourlife.org/challenges-in-education/

[vii] 1 Hour Life. (2022, February 3). 5 Challenges in Education Today in the UK. https://1hourlife.org/challenges-in-education/

[viii] Sodha, S. (2023, October 22). Empty classroom seats reveal ‘long shadow’ of Covid chaos on Britain’s children. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/oct/22/empty-classroom-seats-reveal-long-shadow-of-covid-chaos-on-children

[ix] Equality and Human Rights Commission. (2022). Submission to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child: Children’s Rights in Great Britain, 56-75

[x] Race Disparity Unit. (2023). Ethnicity facts and figures. UK Government, Race Disparity Unit. https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/

[xi] Sodha, S. (2023, October 22). Empty classroom seats reveal ‘long shadow’ of Covid chaos on Britain’s children. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/oct/22/empty-classroom-seats-reveal-long-shadow-of-covid-chaos-on-children

[xii] O’Connell, R; Brannen, J. (2023, October 20). A Portuguese lesson on free school meals. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2023/oct/20/a-portuguese-lesson-on-free-school-meals

[xiii] HM Government. (2019). Voluntary National Review of progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5d2f3d6aed915d2feeac49f4/UKVNR-web-accessible1.pdf

[xiv] Adams, R. (2023, October 17). Bolton graduates miss out on top jobs because of prejudice, says vice-chancellor. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2023/oct/17/university-of-bolton-graduates-miss-out-on-top-jobs-because-of-prejudice-says-vice-chancellor

[xv] The Week. (2022, October 25). Prime ministers and private schools. https://theweek.com/news/education/958294/prime-ministers-and-private-schools

[xvi] Brown, L. (2023, February 8). National Student Accommodation Survey 2023 – Results. Save The Student. https://www.savethestudent.org/accommodation/national-student-accommodation-survey-2023.html

Educational challenges in Nicaragua

Written by Agnes Amaral

Nicaragua is a Central American country that the Spanish colonised in the 16th century. Its independence began at the beginning of the 19th century, with a split between groups that defended monarchical ideals and groups that defended independence. For a time, the country became part of the provinces of Central America, and only in 1838 did it become a republic. Understanding this process of late independence is relevant to understanding the country’s politics and how these relations affect education.

There is an intense process of political rivalry between liberal and conservative groups, which has led to civil war and fostered close relations with US politicians. As a result of these close ties, Nicaragua suffered a series of American interventions aimed at protecting its interests in the region. These interventions led to another civil war, starting in 1926. These conflicts occurred between liberals and conservatives, with various political and local consequences for the population.

Another historical event that has led to analysis of the country’s current situation was the Sandinista insurrection of 1972. These revolutions sought to end a period of dictatorship that had been in place since 1936. This movement was one of the first to align two strands: liberation Christianity and Marxism. Christians played an important role as allies of the revolutionaries in this historic moment.

There are undoubtedly many other nuances and other relevant moments in Nicaragua’s history, but these specific moments indicate the attacks on students that have been taking place recently, especially on university students.

Attack on human rights

In 2018, the Nicaraguan Association for Human Rights (ANPDH) reported the deaths of more than 280 people and more than 2,000 injured due to President Daniel Ortega’s reaction to protesters. The protests were against a reduction in budget pressure. In addition, several university students took to the streets to demand more assertive government action on other issues, such as forest fires. It can be said that this year was crucial for human rights in Nicaragua, especially in terms of education, since students were responsible for demanding fairer actions for the country’s population.

The reactions of the government and government-backed groups against the protesters shocked the country and the world, even causing threats to the Nicaraguan Association for Human Rights (ANPDH), which closed its office in the country due to harassment and death threats over the phone.

Human rights activists become targets of a backlash against protests. Not only students have suffered from this political situation of curtailment of rights, but also doctors and health workers have reported constant attacks and threats.

Since then, it has been possible to observe the role of President Daniel Ortega’s government and how it reacts to social demands. Mainly by attacking students who participated in protests to guarantee human rights.

Attack on universities

In 2022, the struggle of university students continues. Daniel Ortega’s government has instituted reforms to control the country’s education system better. As an example of these oppressive attitudes, the Central American University (UCA) announced that classes and administrative activities had been suspended in August 2022. The UCA’s assets and financial accounts were to be transferred to the government.

Groups from the Jesuit order and students claimed that Daniel Ortega’s government declared the UCA a centre of terrorism against the government. Therefore, it should be held responsible for the university’s accounts. The UN issued a statement reaffirming the impact of this authoritarian change on the right to education. Dictatorial attitudes characterise these actions aimed at the university in an attempt to curtail critical thinking and the right to demand social policies for all.

The question arises regarding the right to education, especially an education that provides free and critical thinking. A variety of theorists and researchers have reinforced the event as dictatorial since not even the university with the highest level of teaching quality in the country was unscathed by government oppression.

The process of revoking these universities, which began with the repressions in 2018, has been accentuated. In 2022, private universities were legally placed as hotbeds of opposition to the government. Several foreign universities with campuses in Nicaragua were closed because they did not follow the authorities of the government in question. The complexity of the issue can be seen in the use of the legal apparatus to silence the voices of students and university professors.

Conclusion

The news from 2023 shows that this event is not over. Daniel Ortega’s government continues to attack university institutions in retaliation for the 2018 protests. Specific attacks on private centres and religious institutions demonstrate a curtailment of the right to education in Nicaragua.

Academics and students are silenced at every turn because there is an attempt to strengthen power and silence political opponents. This is not the first government to try to take away the right to a free and critical education, which shows human rights defenders the need for a continuous struggle to guarantee this right in all spaces. The government’s regulation is mainly aimed at leading institutions in social studies. Researchers are banned from accessing public reports and statistics to carry out their work. It can be said that there has been a definitive attack on education in Nicaragua in recent years.

Many scholars report a totalitarian tendency on the part of the government. The legal apparatus and the force of the state are being used to curtail the right to education, critical thinking, and protests to guarantee quality of life. It is essential to pay attention to this situation since critics and students report disproportionate oppression. The use of militias has been intensive, and the threats to the voices of this oppression have been silenced.

International reactions can be observed, but the COVID-19 pandemic has changed the perception of the events suffered by Nicaragua students, academics, and human rights defenders. It is necessary to emphasise and discuss what can be done to guarantee human rights, especially critical and quality education, in Nicaragua.

References

Ali, Z. (2023, March 25). Nicaragua on the brink: protests, elections, and mass atrocity – Georgetown Journal of International Affairs. Georgetown Journal of International Affairs. https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2023/03/17/nicaragua-on-the-brink-protests-elections-and-mass-atrocity/

Álvarez, M. (2023, May 9). Transforming rural education in Nicaragua: “Rural and Inclusive Digital Education” project advances towards educational equity. UNESCO. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/transforming-rural-education-nicaragua-rural-and-inclusive-digital-education-project-advances

BBC News. (2018, August 6). Nicaraguan human rights group closes offices after threats. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-45082607

Confidencial, R. (2023, September 17). Nicaragua’s state universities impose the “Ortega truth.” Confidencial. https://confidencial.digital/english/nicaraguas-state-universities-impose-the-ortega-truth/

Jazeera, A. (2018a, July 17). Nicaragua unrest: What you should know. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/7/17/nicaragua-unrest-what-you-should-know

Jazeera, A. (2018b, July 17). Nicaragua unrest: What you should know. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/7/17/nicaragua-unrest-what-you-should-know

Jazeera, A. (2023, August 17). Nicaragua seizes Catholic university accused of being ‘centre of terrorism.’ Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/17/nicaragua-seizes-catholic-university-accused-of-being-centre-of-terrorism

Selser, G. (2023, September 12). UN says Nicaragua’s human rights violations and persecution of dissidents are on the rise | AP News. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/nicaragua-human-rights-united-nations-04dd198410aa10760a778166db26a4bf
Seizure of university a blow to science – Researchers. (n.d.). University World News. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20230830114724305

Covid-19 Educational Challenges Human Rights Nicaragua University

French Guiana’s Education System: Current Challenges

Written by Juliana Campos.

France’s largest territory in South America, French Guiana, faces social and economic growth challenges still yet to be addressed by the French government, including difficulties in administering the Guianese education system.

Guianese population has doubled in the last 20 years and is now estimated at 301,099 inhabitants ⁱ. Recently, due to its status as an overseas department of France, the region has experienced a surge in immigration from neighbouring countries such as Brazil and Suriname. The uncontrolled immigration, along with inadequate infrastructure, poverty and elevated unemployment rates have significantly lowered the quality of life in French Guiana and the region faces several challenges which make access to basic services such as healthcare and education more difficult.

The issues which stem from social and economic inequality would greatly benefit from a bigger interest of the French government in improving and expanding education in French Guiana. Although substantial investments have been made in the last decade, money alone is not enough to ensure access to quality education.

The Guianese Education System

In French Guiana, education is free and mandatory from ages 6 to 16. Primary education lasts five years and, for that particular stage of school life, enrolment rates are as high as ever in bigger cities and are slowly improving in more remote areas where there aren’t as many resources, such as in Indigenous settlements. As it is the reality of other developing countries, high Primary School enrolment is contrasted by alarmingly high drop-out rates in Secondary School and High School.

One big contributing factor to this phenomenon is the fact that Primary school is usually cheaper for governments to provide and children in that age group are more likely to stay in school, as parents can’t yet leave them unattended at home while working. In Secondary education, however, many children are given extra tasks at home or in the growing informal market, some live too far from school, and others simply do not receive encouragement from family members to continue their studies.

Besides, it is worth mentioning that although all Guianese children have the right to attend school free of charge, studying is not free. Additional costs with transportation, clothes, food and school materials take a toll on low-income families and may affect students’ attendance rates.

To address this issue, the French government and Guianese authorities have come up with financial aid programmes that aim to motivate students and their families. The bonuses are given to scholarship holders, aiding 46.4% of all middle school and high school students in French Guiana.ⁱⁱ However, there is a lack of follow-up data on whether these measures are actually effective.

Teacher shortage and inequality

Another issue currently hindering quality education in French Guiana is the shortage of trained teachers. The number of licensed educators native to the region is insufficient compared to the number of students, a problem which resulted in overpacked classrooms as the Guianese population grew. This demand brought teachers from mainland France and adjacent countries in South America to work in French Guiana, causing new problems as these professionals are usually unaware of the region’s specificities.ⁱⁱⁱ

In fact, one of the biggest challenges faced by the French government when administering education in French Guiana is its extremely diverse and multicultural society. Though teachers are given freedom to adapt materials to their students’ realities, textbooks are usually made in mainland France and classes are administered in French, the official language.

By erasing French Guiana’s history, geography, languages and heritage from textbooks and national exams, French authorities perpetuate the colonialist idea that mainland France’s history and culture are somehow more relevant than that of its other territories. As a result, children may find school contents difficult to understand or hard to relate to and can grow up unaware of many of their local heroes and historic figures. Besides that, this erasure has a direct effect on students’ self-esteem and may discourage them from continuing their studies.

The adaptation of school contents by local teachers cannot derive much from the French curriculum, as French Guiana students are also subjected to standardized national exams such as the Brevet, the Lower Secondary School exam, and the Baccalauréat, the French academic qualification exam.

Considering the points previously mentioned, it is unsurprising that Guianese students do not reach the same results as mainland French students. According to GrowThinkTank and INSEE (2014), the year of the study in French Guiana, only 76% of students aged 15 to 19 were enrolled in school, whether as pupils, students or apprentices, compared to 89% in mainland France. Furthermore, more than one in two Guianese no longer attend school from the age of 19, compared to 72% in mainland France at the same age.

This stark difference surely doesn’t come from lack of resilience, lack of intelligence or any characteristic exclusive to French Guiana’s youth. It is simply a product of inequality and lack of opportunity. Not being in school or dropping out of school has long lasting effects on young people, not only for their professional future, but also for their individual growth as human beings and as citizens, as school is also the main place where children socialise.

Kids and a Teacher in a Classroom / Photo by Mehmet Turgut Kirkgoz via Pexels

Education of Indigenous People and other minorities

Indigenous peoples play a substantial role in Guianese society, preserving culturally valuable knowledge, fighting for structural change and demanding protection of their territories. The erasure perpetrated by the French school curriculum affects these populations even more strongly, starting by the lack of data available on them. The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) affirms that, according to estimates, Indigenous peoples represent some 4% of the Guianese population, or more than 12,000 individuals^iv, but there is no way to be sure, as the French Constitution prohibits the collection of race-based census data.

For decades in French Guiana, as well as in many adjacent regions, education was only present in the form of Catholic Schools, residential institutions where Indigenous children were forcibly interned and required to replace their traditions and religions with the Catholic ideals. Their native languages were also prohibited and children were taught French instead.

This serves as an example of how school can be used as political tactic, as colonial France risked the disappearance of invaluable Indigenous knowledge in order to maintain its territory. To this day, the French government has not directly dealt with the cultural loss from French Guiana’s period as a colony, and the erasure of Indigenous minorities is still a very present issue, with their history, culture and languages often being ignored by the French education system.

Future Prospects

French Guiana suffers from social and economic inequalities that would greatly benefit from an education system that is better tailored to its extremely multicultural society. The French government has a responsibility to invest in French Guiana’s education by building new schools and preparing and hiring native teachers, as well as training foreign teachers on how to approach French Guiana’s diverse society. This would partially solve the issue of overpacked schools, while also stimulating the local economy.

In addition to these measures, the government should also include more about the history, cultures, geography, climate and religions present in French Guiana in textbooks and standardized exams, which could make school more relatable to students and have a direct effect on the current drop-out rates. A special effort should be made to ensure Indigenous peoples and other minorities have access to quality education which also respects their culture and heritage.

In order to effectively make these improvements, it is crucial that the French government monitors the developments of their investments, either by conducting their own research on the ground or relying on local leaders and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). It is particularly important to collect data on enrolment rates for both Primary and Secondary Education, but also to understand what can be done to make sure these children receive quality education and encouragement to finish their studies.

References:

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Guiana Highlands”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 21 May. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/place/Guiana-Highlands. Accessed 26 October 2023.
FRANCE 24. (2017, April 22). French Guiana protests end with agreement. France 24. https://www.france24.com/en/20170422-french-guiana-protests-end-with-agreement-promise-aid
Jaouen, M. (2023, March 23). The indigenous world 2023: French Guiana. IWGIA. https://www.iwgia.org/en/french-guiana/5090-iw-2023-french-guiana.html
Jeudy, L. (2022, December 19). Poverty situations in French overseas regions 2018, by degree of poverty. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1230503/poverty-situations-french-overseas-regions-degree/
Nacher, M., Basurko, C., Douine, M., Lambert, Y., Hcini, N., Elenga, N., Le Turnier, P., Epelboin, L., Djossou, F., Couppié, P., de Toffol, B., Drak Alsibai, K., Sabbah, N., & Adenis, A. (2023). The Epidemiologic Transition in French Guiana: Secular Trends and Setbacks, and Comparisons with Continental France and South American Countries. Tropical medicine and infectious disease, 8(4), 219. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed8040219
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – French Guiana. Refworld, 2007. Available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/4954ce0d23.html
i Population estimates – All – French Guiana, 2023 Available at: https://www.insee.fr/en/statistiques/serie/001760178
ii Education policy issues in French Guyana. Grow Think Tank. Org. (2022, November 26). Available at: https://www.growthinktank.org/en/education-policy-issues-in-french-guyana/
iii Galvão, I., & Schaller, J.-J. (2007). The issue of diversity in the school experience of youngsters in the French Guiana. Educação E Pesquisa, 33(1), 95–116. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-97022007000100007
iv Jaouen, M. (2023, March 23). The indigenous world 2023: French Guiana. IWGIA. https://www.iwgia.org/en/french-guiana/5090-iw-2023-french-guiana.html

Educational Challenges Educational Challenges in French Guiana French education French government French government education French Guiana Guianese Education System indigenous people

Educational Challenges in Djibouti

Written by Priscilla Thindwa

Education is a human right, not a privilege. This means education is legally guaranteed for all human beings without discrimination and for this reason, states are obliged to “protect, respect, and fulfil the right to education”.ⁱ In instances where states violate or deprive their citizens of the right to education, they are expected to be held accountable for such violations.

As a member of the United Nations (UN) and the African Union (AU), the Republic of Djibouti, has ratified several human rights conventions. Among these is the Universal Declaration on Human Rights which was adopted in 1948. As proclaimed in Article 26, everyone has the right to education. As signatory, Djibouti has made legally binding international commitments to adhere to the standards including protecting and respecting the right to education. In addition to its obligations through international commitments, the Constitution of Djibouti emphasises the right to education as an essential element for growth and human development. Despite this emphasis, Djibouti has not been able to guarantee the right to education to everyone in the country. This article will address the challenges standing in the way of the right to education, but also highlight some good practices.

Djibouti’s Educational Landscape

As a former French colonial state, its education system is based on the French system with French and Arabic as instruction languages. Compulsory education runs for nine years: primary school lasts five years and middle school lasts four years.ⁱⁱ For primary school, enrolment rates were under the regional average in 2020. The enrolment rate of girls in the appropriate age group for primary school was 65 percent in comparison to the regional average of almost 80 percent. For boys, the enrolment rate was 68 percent in comparison to the regional average of 81 percent.ⁱⁱⁱ In 2022, 42 percent of children in the primary school age were out of school.^iv

Secondary school lasts three years and thereafter, students can attend skills training college (TVET) or the University of Djibouti for at least three years.^v While for primary school Djibouti does not reach the regional average, the gross enrolment rate for secondary schooling exceeds the regional average. In 2022, an enrolment rate of 57 percent was reported. According to the Oxford Business Group, this is a huge improvement as in 2001, enrolment was only 16 percent.^vi For tertiary education, Djibouti again does not catch up with the region: total enrolment is only 5 percent.^vii

Despite the fact that Djibouti underperforms in primary and tertiary education on the regional level, the Oxford Business Group reports clear improvements. One improvement mentioned earlier are the enrolment rates in secondary school. In addition, while enrolment rates in primary school are still below the regional average, there has been great improvement over the last two decades. The number of girls not attending primary school fell from 42,620 in 2001 to 16,872 in 2021, while the number of boys fell from 39,088 to 15,284 over the same period. Another improvement in the student-teacher ratio from 34 students per teacher in 2008 to 29 in 2018.^viii

Such improvements are partly owed to the the Education Action Programme 2017-19 (Plan d’Action de l’Education, PAE). Under this programme, several results were achieved including developing a preschool strategy and recognising second-chance education centres and mainstreaming of life skills and citizenship education. Another important aspect of the programme was the inclusion of refugee children into the national education system. Such developments have been important in working towards achieving quality and accessible education for all in Djibouti.^ix

Source: Global Partnership for Education | Via Flickr

Challenges Associated with Education

One of the challenges has already been noted: many children remain out of school. Other challenges include inequitable access to education, low quality of education, low availability of learning materials, and disparities due to gender, geographic areas, and socio-economic status.

Inequitable Access to Education, Low Availability of Learning Materials and Lack of Schools

Three of the main challenges facing the education sector in Djibouti are the unequal access to education, low availability of learning materials, and the lack of schools. These challenges disproportionately affect children in rural areas, especially girls, migrants, refugees, disabled children, and children on the street.^x According to a 2020 report by the Ministry of National Education and Vocational Training (MENFOP), an estimated 50.5 percent of students lived within 1 km of a school, meaning the other 49.5 percent lives further away. 3.3 percent resided further than 10 km from their nearest school. Disparities due to geographic areas and socio-economic status continue to hinder the progress in improving education systems in the country.^xi

With regards to refugees, Djibouti hosted 31,000 refugees and asylum seekers at the beginning of 2022. This number remained stable in 2023.^xii Because of this high number, providing education for refugee children is essential. For most refugee children, language was the main barrier for accessing education. To counter such barriers, the government has translated the national curriculum into English and Arabic and has trained teachers in local languages of Afar and Somali. Also, the government recognises education previously provided to refugee students in other countries which has made it easier for them to take the Djibouti Baccalaureate examination.^xiii

Additionally, as a way of making education inclusive and accessible for all, the government has developed the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) sector whose main goal is to alleviate unemployment within the country. Such trainings economically empower those from disadvantaged households who cannot afford university costs to attain skills. This shows the government has taken steps to bridge access to education between the rich and poor.^xiv

Low Quality of Education

Despite progress made in recent years, low quality of education remains a challenge for Djibouti. For instance, based on the grade 5 assessments conducted in 3 subjects (French, Mathematics and Arabic), the success rate for children at the end of 2017-2018 academic year was 71.8 percent. In 2016-2017, the ratio was pegged at 64 percent.^xv In light of such lower quality of education, the government has been working collaboratively with agencies such as UNICEF in order to improve the quality of education in the country.

Gender Disparities

Similar to most African countries, the gaps between male and female students in school attendance is persistent. The number of girls’ school drop outs is usually higher than that of boys, and girls are in rural areas are particularly affected. In comparison to rural areas, urban areas show an increase in gender equity in primary, secondary and tertiary education.^xvi

Djibouti is observed to have made progress: as noted before, there was a large increase in the number of girls attending primary school between 2001 and 2021. Even though gender inequality is still persistent, national policies and strategies promoting women’s rights and gender equality have contributed to changes in attitude towards girls’ education. Another intervention aiding progress is the revision of teaching and learning materials in which images defying traditional depiction of women and girls in society are now displayed.^xvii On this note, the government of Djibouti has made some considerable progress in bridging the gender gap in access to education, albeit slow.

The Covid-19 Pandemic

Similar to elsewhere, the COVID-19 pandemic had grave consequences for education. As a way to limit the spread of the virus, measures such as containment were put in place in most countries around the globe. Such measures restricted children and adolescents from going to school and any other public facilities, which exacerbated already existing inequities in many countries. In Djibouti, the government closed down schools in April 2020. All activities were suspended until August 2020.^xviii

To ensure students continued to have access to their education, MENFOP developed a distance-learning programme for both rural and urban areas. This was done, for example, through televising and radio courses as well as providing the learning materials on internet platforms. Moreover, booklets and paper materials for rural communities and refugees were provided.^xix Also, through funding from the World Bank, the government supported improvement in access to remote learning and provided electronic devices and internet connectivity to schools across the country.^xx In addition, the programs focused on vulnerable students, including children living in remote areas, refugees, and girls.^xxi

While the programme did not reach every students, it is considered successful: 86 percent of students had access to online learning, of which 45% were girls, 18% lived in remote areas and 5% were refugees. Also, many children returned to school after schools reopened. With support of UNICEF, a campaign was launched to engage the community and parents, leading to positive results. In addition, students who experienced high levels of learning loss were offered remedial programmes.^xxii Thus, even though the COVID-19 pandemic posed as a challenge within the education sector, the government together with international organisations was able to alleviate the effects caused by creating alternative ways to accessing education.

Conclusion

As discussed above, different factors continue to hinder full enjoyment of the right to education by people living in Djibouti. Many children continue to not attend schools, and low access to educational institutions remains a problem. This is compounded by low quality of education and low availability of learning materials. Such challenges are exacerbated by inequitable access to education, as well as disparities due to gender, geographic areas, and socio-economic status.

Despite aforementioned challenges, the government of Djibouti undertakes efforts to increase access to and coverage of education, especially in rural areas and for refugees. Also, its improvement in reducing gender disparities should be commended. With regards to the Covid-19 pandemic, the government managed to mitigate the negative impacts of the pandemic by providing alternative learning avenues and equipment. The involvement of local communities and parents can be praised.

References

Donaher, M. (2023). USAID Djibouti’s Early Grade Reading Activity (DEGRA) Is Transforming Gender Norms in the Classroom and Beyond. Education Links. https://www.edu-links.org/learning/usaid-djiboutis-early-grade-reading-activity-degra-transforming-gender-norms-classroom-and#:~:text=While%20in%20urban%20areas%2C%20gender,to%20drop%20out%20of%20school.
Hamlaoui, Souad. (2021). Djibouti: An opportunity to transform education through enhanced sector dialogue during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Partnership Education.
https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/djibouti-opportunity-transform-education-through-enhanced-sector-dialogue-during-covid-19
Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why education in Djibouti is more accessible across the country.Oxford Business Group.
https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/djibouti/2023-report/health-education/greater-reach-progress-is-being-made-to-make-education-more-accessible-nationwide-in-both-rural-and-urban-areas-overview/
Reliefweb. (2023). Djbouti: Operational Update. Reliefweb. https://reliefweb.int/report/djibouti/djibouti-operational-update-october-2023#:~:text=The%20Republic%20of%20Djibouti%20remains,asylum%20seekers%20from%20neighboring%20countries.
Right to Education. (2023). Understanding Education as a Right. Right to Education.
https://www.right-to education.org/page/understanding-education-right
The World Bank. (2015). Djibouti Needs to Build and Expand on Achievements to Educate the Next Generation. The World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/02/04/djibouti-needs-to-build-and-expand-on-achievements-to-educate-the-next-generation
UNICEF Djibouti. (2019). Djibouti: Education Thematic Report. UNICEF. https://open.unicef.org/sites/transparency/files/2020-06/DJIBOUTI-TP4-2018.pdf
USAID. (N.d.). Djibouti: Education. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/education
USAID. (N.d.). Djibouti: Gender. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/gender
i Right to Education. (2023). Understanding Education as a Rights. Right to Education. https://www.right-to-education.org/page/understanding-education-
ii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group. https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/djibouti/2023-report/health-education/greater-reach-progress-is-being-made-to-make-education-more-accessible-nationwide-in-both-rural-and-urban-areas-overview/
iii USAID. (N.d.). Djibouti: Gender. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/gender
iv USAID. (N.d). Djibouti: Education. USAID. https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/djibouti/education
v Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country”. Oxford Business Group.
vi Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
vii USAID. (N.d.). “Djibouti: Education”. USAID.
viii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
ix Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
x UNICEF Djibouti. (2019). Djibouti: Education Thematic Report. UNICEF.
https://open.unicef.org/sites/transparency/files/2020-06/DJIBOUTI-TP4-2018.pdf
xi Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
xii Reliefweb. 2023. Djbouti: Operational Update. Reliefweb. https://reliefweb.int/report/djibouti/djibouti-operational-update-october-2023#:~:text=The%20Republic%20of%20Djibouti%20remains,asylum%20seekers%20from%20neighboring%20countries.
xiii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
xiv Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
xv UNICEF Djibouti. (2019). Djibouti: Education Thematic Report. UNICEF.
xvi M. Donaher. (2023). USAID Djibouti’s Early Grade Reading Activity (DEGRA) Is Transforming Gender Norms in the Classroom and Beyond. Education Links. https://www.edu-links.org/learning/usaid-djiboutis-early-grade-reading-activity-degra-transforming-gender-norms-classroom-and#:~:text=While%20in%20urban%20areas%2C%20gender,to%20drop%20out%20of%20school.
xvii M. Donaher. (2023). USAID Djibouti’s Early Grade Reading Activity (DEGRA) Is Transforming Gender
xviii Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
xx Oxford Business Group. (2023). Why Education is More Accessible Across the Country. Oxford Business Group.
xxi Souad Hamlaoui. (2021). Djibouti: An opportunity to transform education through enhanced sector dialogue during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Partnership Education. https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/djibouti-opportunity-transform-education-through-enhanced-sector-dialogue-during-covid-19
xxii Souad Hamlaoui. (2021). Djibouti: An opportunity to transform education through enhanced sector dialogue during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Partnership Education.

Covid-19 Djibouti Educational Challenges Educational Challenges in Djibouti gender inequality inaccessibility of education low quality of education refugee children

Educational Challenges in French Polynesia

French Polynesia/ Tahaa: School Bus via Flickr, photographer: Enrico Silva

Written by Luzi Maj Leonhardt for Broken Chalk

French Polynesia represents a French overseas collective and consists of 121 islands in the eastern South Pacific. The islands comprise the five archipelagos, Society Islands, Tuamotu Islands, Marquesas Islands, Gambier Islands, and Austral Islands. The island of Tahiti and the capital Papeete, represent the political and economic centre of the country. Together, the size of the overall territory can be compared to the size of Europe. French Polynesia has approximately 300,000 inhabitants.

French Polynesia was colonized by France in 1880 and became a French overseas territory in 1949. Since then, France granted more and more autonomy to local authorities, while the 2004 ‘Organic Law’ played a significant role in the country’s self-government. Consequently, since 2013, French Polynesia has been officially listed as a self-governing territory by the United Nations.

The political system present in French Polynesia is a parliamentary democracy, with a 57-seat assembly and parliamentary elections in five-year terms. The current president is Moetai Brotherson, who won elections in May 2023 and, for the first time since 2004, belongs to a pro-independence party. However, according to local experts, this will most likely not result in a political referendum, but the high voter turnouts are due to dissatisfaction with the previous government during Covid 19.

In general, the president of the French Republic is also the head of state of French Polynesia, which reveals the strong influence France remains to have on the economic and political development.

French influence in French Polynesia

Historically, for many people, the French administration in French Polynesia is strongly connected to the 193 nuclear tests conducted by the French state between 1966 and 1996. These areal and underground tests had severe consequences for the environment, health, and economy, and victims struggle to obtain compensation and recognition until today. Even though, in 2021, compensation procedures reached new importance in the Macron administration, the French government still denied their minimalization of the impacts of contaminations during the project.

Nowadays, the economy of French Polynesia is rooted in tourism; approximately 68% of Polynesians work in the service sector. Therefore, the Covid-19 crisis and lockdown had severe consequences for the economy. Additionally, the country relies on the cultivation of black pearls and subsidies. The latter is mainly based on financial support by France to their overseas territory, which makes up 30% of the country’s GDP. These spending are distributed equally on the jurisdictions of the territorial government and French state-based responsibilities. French Polynesia reached autonomy in most local affairs and regional relations over time. However, France retains responsibilities in competencies such as law enforcement, defence, and education.

The educational system in French Polynesia

The French Polynesian educational system is regulated by local authorities and the French government. The state finances public education and subsidizes private institutions, operated by the church. Thereby, France holds key responsibilities in budget management and organization of state exams, such as teacher certifications and high-school finals.

The general school system is similar to the system in place in France, complying with French standards, including the curriculum. However, since the 2004 ‘Organic Law’, local authorities have gained more say and autonomy in the educational sector. This led to slight changes in the curriculum to match local needs and take historical, geographical, cultural, and social realities into account.

In French Polynesia, education is compulsory until age sixteen, whereby primary education falls between the ages of five and twelve, while secondary education finishes at age seventeen. However, many children fail to comply due to language barriers, economic struggles, and cultural differences. As a form of higher education, the ‘Université de la Polynésie française’ was founded in 1987 in Outumaoro, Punaauia, Tahiti. The university is a non-profit higher education institution and has displayed a significant increase in students since 1999. In 2019, the number of students rose to 2898. Additionally, several technical schools offer special programs such as hotel business, service, and teaching. There are also different adult educational programs.

The language of instruction in formal educational institutions is French. However, with new efforts of local adjustments and accessibility, the incorporation of the Tahitian language as a language of instruction makes up on average one in seven courses.

Language barrier in the educational system

French Polynesia has always been a multilingual country, with five different local languages in the archipelagos. Tahitian is the language of the islands, however, its recognition as an official language alongside French only took place in the 1980s. The formal recognition of indigenous languages has long been neglected and still plays a role in the contemporary educational system.

Since the beginning of French influence, the language in the educational system has been French. This also means that until French became more popular in society, children started their academic careers in a foreign language. Especially on smaller islands, people mainly spoke Polynesian as their everyday language of socialization. The former educational system was not very tolerant towards indigenous languages and even formally banned Tahitian in schools for some time. However, in the early 2000s, France extended their early childhood and foreign language promotion as part of the EU’s multilingual education movement. This led to meaningful changes in language learning policies in French Polynesia. The program aimed to provide culturally responsive education and meant the inclusion of the Tahitian language in schools.

Nevertheless, Tahitian only makes up a couple of hours per week, so nationalist groups proceed to fight for the equal incorporation of indigenous languages in the educational sector. Even though, the literacy rate on Tahiti is 98%, many smaller islands struggle with the educational system provided by the French administration, leading to high dropout rates. Education is compulsory until age sixteen, but only 20% of the students in French Polynesia, mainly from outer islands, finish elementary school. One reason for this is language difficulties, which lower the accessibility to the educational system.

Additionally, English has become increasingly important over the last decade, especially in the tourism sector. Therefore, it was integrated into the elementary school curriculum in 2010 as a foreign language after a pilot project of five years. Unfortunately, this policy change faced severe difficulties due to a lack of teachers with sufficient language competencies.

Although the educational system in French Polynesia mirrors the French educational system, statistical data conducted in elementary schools reveals a deficiency in the academic success of French Polynesian students. Experts connect this deficiency directly to the socio-linguistic context and emphasize the dependency of further professional opportunities for the students on educational success.

Unemployment

French Polynesia faces growing challenges of social and economic inequalities, including differences in wealth. About ¼ of the population lives below the poverty line, while most of the wealth lies with the rich elite, mainly French civil servants. The reason for this involves the absence of redistribution measures in the tax system, namely an income tax. One-half of the citizens live in rural areas due to poverty and a lack of opportunities for young people in urban areas, which leads to the creation of ‘shanty towns’ or slums surrounding bigger cities.

Demographically, French Polynesia is a young country; Approximately ¼ of the population is under 14 years old, and 35% is under 20 years old. However, due to the economic difficulties of the families and the already mentioned language limitations, many children drop out of school before the compulsory age of sixteen, narrowing their prospects for future employment. Consequently, 50% of the under twenty-five-year-olds are unemployed, and a big part of the young population struggles with underemployment.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the educational approach in French Polynesia based on the French system and curriculum, is stable and provides a basis for substantial education. The foundations of education do not face severe challenges. However, by transferring the foreign French system to the academic sector in French Polynesia, the French administration failed to consider local societal and political circumstances. This is reflected in the clash over the language used in schools. Given that language poses the main challenge in French Polynesia, other issues, like the increase in unemployment, are connected to it. So, it’s crucial to focus on making improvements in this area.

Research on child learning suggests significant advantages of bilingual and multilingual education. Including the children’s native language by linking socialization and education will improve cognitive skills, leading to positive development of language ability and educational success.

Even though academic policies in French Polynesia started to open up to indigenous languages, the dimension of Tahitian in schools compared to French is still minimal. Therefore, it is necessary to expand on the further development of multilingual programs in schools and universities.

Additionally, enhancing the dialogue and direct cooperation in originally French political responsibilities, such as education, will improve the legitimation of the system, standing against critical voices in the political sphere, such as nationalist parties.

The decision-makers on education in French Polynesia set a new goal for evaluating multilingual education. To successfully attain this objective, the implementation of innovative policies to reinforce resolutions, coupled with financial support aimed at equipping teachers with the necessary competencies, is imperative.

References:

Evanelia Tahiti, Education in French Polynesia, Evanelia Tahiti, January 2022.
Gabillon, Zehra, & Ailincai, Rodica, Multilingual primary education initiative in French Polynesia, International Conference on New Horizons in Education (INTE), pp. 3595-3602, June 2014.
Childrens Villages, General information on French Polynesia, Childrens Villages.
Milhiet, Paco, French Polynesia’s new pro-independence leadership, The Diplomat, May 2023.
French Polynesia’s SDG monitoring report, Sustainable Development Goals in French Polynesia, “SDG indicators” working group, 2021.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, The Indigenous World 2023: French Polynesia, International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, June 2017.

and Austral Islands Educational Challenges French Polynesia Gambier Islands language learning Marquesas Islands Society Islands Tuamotu Islands

Educational Challenges in the Caribean Netherlands

Written by Sterre Krunen

Every student counts! In 2011, this slogan was the starting shot of the Caribbean and European Netherlands’ combined efforts to achieve educational equity and raise the quality of education on the islands of Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba. Although quality and equity increased, the Caribbean Netherlands still dealt with significant educational challenges in 2023. This article will explore three main challenges: the care for students with special needs, multilingualism, and the effects of poverty.

This article analyses these three challenges to understand the accessibility and quality of education in the Caribbean Netherlands. But first, we need to go into the governance structure of the islands and their relationship with the European Netherlands to fully understand the barriers to tackling the challenges and efforts to address them. Also, the policy programs addressing education and the Education Agendas will be given special attention to show continuing good practices and to explain the context in which the current challenges continue.

This map shows us the Kingdom of the Netherlands, consisting of the European Netherlands and the Caribbean Netherlands. Both thank their name to their geographical location (CC BY-SA 3.0 DEED, Wikimedia Commons: TUBS).

Context-Specific Efforts to Overcome Education Inequity

In 1948, Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba became a part of the Dutch Antilles, a separate country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. This changed in 2010: the islands became public bodies under the European Netherlands. Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba are now local governments. An executive council, an island council, and the Dutch national government govern each island. Since this change, the islands have been referred to as the Caribbean Netherlands or the BES-islands.[i]

The Dutch Ministry for Education, Culture and Science is responsible for education. The schools on the islands are part of the Dutch education system and are monitored by the Netherlands’ Inspectorate of Education.[ii] The Dutch Ministry of Education, island councils and other stakeholders cooperated over the past twelve years to develop three policy programs, the Education Agendas.

The Education Agendas address educational equity between the two parts of the Netherlands. The idea is that it should not matter whether a child grows up in the European Netherlands or the Caribbean Netherlands; educational opportunities should be the same.[iii] The agendas address the specific context of the islands, as there are apparent differences from the European Netherlands in terms of culture, history, identity, language, scale, and organization.[iv]

The first two agendas address all three islands within one agenda. During the draft of the first Education Agenda (2011-2016), the level of education of many schools on the BES islands did not fulfil European nor Caribbean Dutch standards.[v] By 2016, most schools reached basic quality standards. However, particular areas still required improvement, again addressed in the second Agenda (2017-2020). [vi] The evaluation of this Agenda in 2020 shows that the main challenges are care for students with special needs and multilingualism.[vii]

While the third Education Agenda has not yet been published, it shall address these challenges.[viii] Furthermore, this agenda will address the challenges on each island separately, showing us a further commitment to context-specific policymaking, which hopefully improves the effectiveness of the third Education Agenda.

Educational Challenge I: Care for Students with Special Needs

The first challenge to discuss is the care for students with special needs. The right to education for children with special needs is a human right. It is taken up in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. While the last Convention was ratified by the European Netherlands, it does not apply to the Caribbean Netherlands.

A statement by the Expertise Centre Education Care Saba in 2021 summarizes the importance of care for these students: “Students have the right to feel included in a safe and reliable environment with a structured pedagogical climate that is tolerant and encouraging for the development of all”.[ix] Now, children with special needs still face situations in which education is not tailored to them, meaning they do not profit from education as their peers or eventually drop out. Some children do not have access to education at all. Children with a higher need for care face difficulties.[x]

An example of inadequate care is the case of the ten-year-old Arianny on Bonaire. In 2022, the non-speaking girl was in the news as she could not attend education on Bonaire. Arianny had no access. Members of the Dutch parliament asked the then minister of Education, Dennis Wiersma, questions about her situation and the general situation on Bonaire. The minister reacted that all children should have access to education and are required to attend school, despite specific situations. The situation of Arianny and the research in other reports show us that is not yet the reality.[xi]

Why do these problems continue even after the two Education Agendas?

Student care on the BES islands is not comparable to care in the European Netherlands. While both experience similar problems, the expert centre on Saba notes that the main difference derives from scale and school culture, for example, the lack of awareness about the differing needs of students. This also applies to the other islands: children with special needs continue to follow the same program as their peers even though they need additional care. Moreover, there are relatively more students with special needs in Saba than in the European Netherlands. Possible explanations are a lack of education planning, differentiation in the classroom and special education needs teachers.[xii] Also, non-school-related causes affect children’s learning capabilities, such as poverty and domestic violence.[xiii]

This continuing lack of care for students with special needs thus asks for extra efforts. Renewed attention to this problem and policies need to tackle the problem, ensuring (continuance of) access to education for children like Arianny. Individual needs must be considered to optimize the learning experience of already vulnerable students.

Three kids sitting in the port of Kralendijk, the capital of Bonaire (CC BY-NC 2.0 DEED, Flickr: Globewriter).

Educational Challenge II: Multilingualism

Because of the different languages being spoken on each island, the language of education has been a thorny issue. Encountered challenges have been linguistic imperialism, learning challenges, and difficulty accessing tertiary education in Dutch.

On Bonaire, most inhabitants speak Papiamento as their mother tongue. On Saba and St. Eustasius, a local variety of Caribbean English has the upper hand. Despite this, Dutch was the only officially recognized language until the beginning of the century thus, education was in Dutch.[xiv]Nowadays, Papiamento and English can both be used in education. This represents the reality of the islands and a respect for local languages, making it a laudable development and a move away from linguistic imperialism.

However, it also causes new educational challenges, especially for learning results and further education. On Saba and St. Eustatius, the instruction language is English. Dutch is being taught as a foreign language.[xv] St. Eustatius switched to English as an instruction language in secondary education in 2014. Dutch proved to negatively affect learning outcomes and attitudes towards the Dutch language.[xvi] Saba has used English as the instruction language for a more extended period. However, only teaching Dutch as a foreign language hinders access to tertiary education. A low proficiency in Dutch means that students from these islands cannot access (all) tertiary education institutions in the European Netherlands.[xvii] This is especially problematic because the Caribbean Netherlands does not have any universities or universities of applied sciences, meaning inhabitants must move to pursue tertiary education.[xviii]

On Bonaire, education starts in Papiamento – the native language of most students – for the first two years of primary school. After these years, the instruction language became Dutch. This causes risks, as the case of St. Eustatius before 2014 showed. Furthermore, it can hinder learning outcomes as children might struggle with Dutch.[xix]

Therefore, multilingualism leads to specific challenges for students regarding access to further education and learning outcomes. It has been difficult to find a balance between Dutch, Papiamento, and Caribbean English that will tackle these challenges. A comprehensive language policy should be developed per island, where native languages and Dutch get a well-balanced place within the education system.

Educational Challenge III: Poverty

This third educational challenge goes beyond the education agendas as it intertwines with the overall situation on the BES islands: life on the islands has become increasingly expensive, and salaries and government support are insufficient to afford this.

This is why children on the BES islands noted poverty as one of the biggest challenges in their lives in 2021. And high poverty levels have continued since then: 11,000 people live below the poverty line in 2023. This is an extremely high number, considering that the islands’ total population is 30,000.[xx] In comparison to the European Netherlands: 800,000 live in poverty on a population of almost 18 million.[xxi]

What do such numbers mean for Caribbean students?

The rapport between the Dutch Ombudsman and the Children’s Ombudsman gives us the distressing example of Shanice, an 11-year-old Bonairean girl. Her mother is a single caretaker, working multiple jobs to stay afloat. She is more often at work than at home. Shanice cares for her younger brothers and sisters, looks after the groceries, and wash dishes instead of having the opportunity to focus on her studies. She goes to school: she likes it there. However, she often feels stressed because of her many responsibilities. Then, she cannot focus or learn. At the same time, Shanice pressures herself to learn: she wants to have a different life than her mom.[xxii]

This example shows how poverty gives children many responsibilities and negatively affects their learning. This example does not comprise all adverse effects. When not having enough money, healthy food is not always a priority, just like schoolbooks or having a good place to study. Extra school costs might not be paid. Parents and kids both experience high-stress levels, which might cause parents to be (emotionally) unavailable and children to have problems focusing. All negatively affect the school outcomes of children.[xxiii]

To tackle this problem of poverty and its effects, there should be governmental support to lift children and their parents from poverty. However, government policies are one of the causes of poverty: the model of living costs for the BES island presents living costs as lower than they are. Policies are developed based on this model. Moreover, this is a recurring argument for not higher social welfare: ensuring social welfare will demotivate people, and they will not work anymore.[xxiv] Hence, policies have contributed to the problem of poverty.

In addition, inhabitants of the BES islands do not always have access to the same resources European Dutch individuals have. These resources are, however, of great importance: European Dutch depend on them, but Caribbean Dutch cannot even access them.[xxv] This is possible because of the special status of the islands. The UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination noted in 2021 that such differences between the European Netherlands and Caribbean Netherlands are deplorable, that discrimination should be fought, and that equality should be pursued.

The Dutch government has been taking steps. A law ensuring the equal treatment of all citizens in the Netherlands will come into effect for the Caribbean Netherlands.[xxvi] The exact date is, however, unclear. Furthermore, the model of living costs will be adjusted in July 2024. From that date onwards, inhabitants of the Caribbean Netherlands will be able to breach the gap between social security and living costs that exists now. In addition, the Dutch government does undertake other efforts to address poverty, but the Netherlands Institute for Human Rights judges them to be insufficient. [xxvii]

The Dutch government seems to increasingly take responsibility for the high poverty levels in the Caribbean Netherlands. A necessary development: despite statements such as ‘Every student counts!’, the Dutch government has discriminated against Caribbean Dutch citizens. The unfavourable treatment they experience puts them behind their fellow citizens in Europe.

Conclusion

Education quality has increased significantly on the Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba islands. Great efforts have been made to tailor policies to the local contexts of the islands, which is essential for education equity between the European and Caribbean Netherlands. This is praiseworthy and will hopefully continue with the third Education Agenda.

However, great educational challenges persist on the islands. Benefits from and access to education are under pressure. While multilingualism affects all students, poverty and the lack of special care affect some students disproportionately. Furthermore, the problem of poverty and lack of special care show clear signs of discrimination, which should be condemned and stopped. The case of the islands of Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba thus indicates the need for policies tackling discrimination and a comprehensive plan to improve education further.

References

Cover Image: A young girl in costume during a parade on Bonaire (CC BY-SA 4.0 DEED, Wikimedia Commons: Atsme).

Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. https://www.eerstekamer.nl/overig/20210708/evaluatie_tweede_onderwijsagenda/document3/f=/vlkch545eltd_opgemaakt.
Den Hartog, Tobias and Laurens Kok. (2023). Op weg naar 1 miljoen armen: bij dit inkomen leef je volgens de overheid in armoede. Het Parool. https://www.parool.nl/nederland/op-weg-naar-1-miljoen-armen-bij-dit-inkomen-leef-je-volgens-de-overheid-in-armoede~b9c9b7ed/
Haringsma, Phaedra. (2022). Zo wordt ongelijkheid tussen Europees en Caribisch Nederland al jaren in stand gehouden. De Correspondent. https://decorrespondent.nl/13713/zo-wordt-ongelijkheid-tussen-europees-en-caribisch-nederland-al-jaren-in-stand-gehouden/2f84b44f-db88-0d7c-029d-9c1d00ae02b3
Inspectie van het Onderwijs. (2017). De Ontwikkeling van het Onderwijs in Caribisch Nederland 2014-2016. Onderwijsinspectie. https://www.onderwijsinspectie.nl/documenten/rapporten/2017/03/21/rapport-onderwijsontwikkelingen-caribisch-nederland-20142016
Kinderombudsman, and Nationale Ombudsman. (2023). Caribische kinderen van de rekening. Kinderombudsman. https://www.nationaleombudsman.nl/publicaties/rapporten/2022058#:~:text=Dit%20rapport%20beschrijft%20de%20knelpunten,zelf%20als%20voor%20hun%20kinderen
Kinderombudsman. (2021). Als je het ons vraagt: kinderen op de BES-eilanden. Kinderombudsman. https://www.kinderombudsman.nl/publicaties/rapport-als-je-het-ons-vraagt-onderzoek-kinderen-op-de-bes
Kloosterboer, Karin. (2013). Kind op Bonaire, St. Eustatius en Saba. UNICEF. https://content.presspage.com/uploads/688/samenvattingkindopbeslowres.pdf
Langerak, Lisa. (2021). Inclusive Special Education on Saba. Expertise Center Education Care. https://www.learningsaba.com/2021_Care_Coordinator/210614%20Project%20plan%20Inclusive%20Special%20Education%20Saba.pdf
Mijts, Eric, Ellen-Petra Kester and Nicholas Faraclas. (2014). Multilingualism and education in the Caribbean Netherlands. A community-based approach to a sustainable language education policy. The case study of St. Eustatius. NT2. https://www.nt2.nl/documenten/meertaligheid_en_onderwijs/kambel_meertaligheid_binnenwerk_eng_h5.pdf
Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. (2022). Antwoord op schriftelijke vragen van de leden Van den Berg en Peters (beiden CDA) over het bericht ‘Moeder vraagt om hulp: 10-jarige Arianny kan op Bonaire niet naar school. Open Overheid. https://open.overheid.nl/documenten/ronl-b6d4ce01be3eac9fe87130ee6b9b0f08d72e664e/pdf
Nederlands Jeugdinstituut. (N.d). De invloed van armoede op schoolprestaties. Nederlands Jeugdinstituut. https://www.nji.nl/armoede/invloed-op-schoolprestaties
Netherlands Institute for Human Rights. (2023). Caribisch Nederland krijgt wetgeving gelijke behandeling. College voor de Rechten van de Mens. https://www.mensenrechten.nl/actueel/nieuws/2023/01/25/caribisch-nederland-krijgt-wetgeving-gelijke-behandeling#:~:text=Iedereen%20die%20zich%20in%20Nederland,2010%20bijzondere%20gemeentes%20van%20Nederland
Netherlands Institute for Human Rights. (2023). Report to UN Committee on economic, social and cultural human rights in the Netherlands. College voor de Rechten van de Mens. https://publicaties.mensenrechten.nl/file/5803a853-0bbe-b495-7932-3bb751e0aed4.pdf
NOS. (2023). Derde van Caribisch Nederland onder armoedegrens, pleidooi voor hoger minimumloon. NOS. https://nos.nl/artikel/2493122-derde-van-caribisch-nederland-onder-armoedegrens-pleidooi-voor-hoger-minimumloon
Polak, Anneke. (2014). Engels als instructietaal ‘ingrijpend’. Caribisch Netwerk. https://caribischnetwerk.ntr.nl/2014/06/19/engels-als-instructietaal-statia-ingrijpend/
Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Higher Education and Science. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. https://english.rijksdienstcn.com/education-culture-science/higher-education-and-science
Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/onderwijs-cultuur-wetenschap
Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijsagenda voor Caribisch Nederland: samen werken aan kwaliteit. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/binaries/rijksdienstcn-nederlands/documenten/brochures/onderwijs-cultuur/onderwijsagendas/eerste-onderwijsagenda-caribisch-nederland/index/Eerste_Onderwijsagenda_NL.pdf
Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Taal in het Onderwijs. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/onderwijs-cultuur-wetenschap/ouders-leerlingen/taal-in-het-onderwijs
Rijksoverheid. (N.d). Caribisch deel van het Koninkrijk. Rijksoverheid. https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/caribische-deel-van-het-koninkrijk/rechtspositie-politieke-ambtsdragers-bonaire-sint-eustatius-saba

[i] Rijksoverheid. (N.d). Caribisch deel van het Koninkrijk. Rijksoverheid. https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/caribische-deel-van-het-koninkrijk/rechtspositie-politieke-ambtsdragers-bonaire-sint-eustatius-saba

[ii] Rijksoverheid. (N.d.). Caribisch deel van het Koninkrijk. Rijksoverheid.

[iii] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/onderwijs-cultuur-wetenschap

[iv] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijsagenda voor Caribisch Nederland: samen werken aan kwaliteit. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. 1. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/binaries/rijksdienstcn-nederlands/documenten/brochures/onderwijs-cultuur/onderwijsagendas/eerste-onderwijsagenda-caribisch-nederland/index/Eerste_Onderwijsagenda_NL.pdf

[v] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Onderwijsagenda voor Caribisch Nederland: samen werken aan kwaliteit. 1.

[vi] Inspectie van het Onderwijs. (2017). De Ontwikkeling van het Onderwijs in Caribisch Nederland 2014-2016. Onderwijsinspectie. 39-41. https://www.onderwijsinspectie.nl/documenten/rapporten/2017/03/21/rapport-onderwijsontwikkelingen-caribisch-nederland-20142016

[vii] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 20. https://www.eerstekamer.nl/overig/20210708/evaluatie_tweede_onderwijsagenda/document3/f=/vlkch545eltd_opgemaakt.

[viii] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 22.

[ix]. Langerak, Lisa. (2021). Inclusive Special Education on Saba. Expertise Center Education Care. 2. https://www.learningsaba.com/2021_Care_Coordinator/210614%20Project%20plan%20Inclusive%20Special%20Education%20Saba.pdf

[x] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 20.

[xi] Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. (2022). Antwoord op schriftelijke vragen van de leden Van den Berg en Peters (beiden CDA) over het bericht ‘Moeder vraagt om hulp: 10-jarige Arianny kan op Bonaire niet naar school. Open Overheid. 2-3. https://open.overheid.nl/documenten/ronl-b6d4ce01be3eac9fe87130ee6b9b0f08d72e664e/pdf

[xii] Langerak, Lisa. (2021). Inclusive Special Education on Saba. Expertise Center Education Care. 5.

[xiii] Kinderombudsman. (2021). Als je het ons vraagt: kinderen op de BES-eilanden. Kinderombudsman. 10-11. https://www.kinderombudsman.nl/publicaties/rapport-als-je-het-ons-vraagt-onderzoek-kinderen-op-de-bes

[xiv] Mijts, Eric, Ellen-Petra Kester and Nicholas Faraclas. (2014). Multilingualism and education in the Caribbean Netherlands. A community-based approach to a sustainable language education policy. The case study of St. Eustatius. NT2. 2. https://www.nt2.nl/documenten/meertaligheid_en_onderwijs/kambel_meertaligheid_binnenwerk_eng_h5.pdf

[xv] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Taal in het Onderwijs. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. https://www.rijksdienstcn.com/onderwijs-cultuur-wetenschap/ouders-leerlingen/taal-in-het-onderwijs

[xvi] Polak, Anneke. (2014). Engels als instructietaal ‘ingrijpend’. Caribisch Netwerk. https://caribischnetwerk.ntr.nl/2014/06/19/engels-als-instructietaal-statia-ingrijpend/

[xvii] Buys, Marga. (2021). Evaluatie Tweede Onderwijsagenda Caribisch Nederland 2017-2020. Eerste Kamer. 20.

[xviii] Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. (N.d). Higher Education and Science. Rijksdienst Caribisch Nederland. https://english.rijksdienstcn.com/education-culture-science/higher-education-and-science

[xix] Kloosterboer, Karin. (2013). Kind op Bonaire, St. Eustatius en Saba. UNICEF. 15. https://content.presspage.com/uploads/688/samenvattingkindopbeslowres.pdf

[xx] NOS. (2023). Derde van Caribisch Nederland onder armoedegrens, pleidooi voor hoger minimumloon. NOS

https://nos.nl/artikel/2493122-derde-van-caribisch-nederland-onder-armoedegrens-pleidooi-voor-hoger-minimumloon

[xxi] Den Hartog, Tobias and Laurens Kok. (2023). Op weg naar 1 miljoen armen: bij dit inkomen leef je volgens de overheid in armoede. Het Parool.

https://www.parool.nl/nederland/op-weg-naar-1-miljoen-armen-bij-dit-inkomen-leef-je-volgens-de-overheid-in-armoede~b9c9b7ed/

[xxii] Kinderombudsman, and Nationale Ombudsman. (2023). Caribische kinderen van de rekening. Kinderombudsman. 4. https://www.nationaleombudsman.nl/publicaties/rapporten/2022058#:~:text=Dit%20rapport%20beschrijft%20de%20knelpunten,zelf%20als%20voor%20hun%20kinderen.

[xxiii] Nederlands Jeugdinstituut. (N.d). De invloed van armoede op schoolprestaties. Nederlands Jeugdinstituut. https://www.nji.nl/armoede/invloed-op-schoolprestaties

[xxiv] Haringsma, Phaedra. (2022). Zo wordt ongelijkheid tussen Europees en Caribisch Nederland al jaren in stand gehouden. De Correspondent. https://decorrespondent.nl/13713/zo-wordt-ongelijkheid-tussen-europees-en-caribisch-nederland-al-jaren-in-stand-gehouden/2f84b44f-db88-0d7c-029d-9c1d00ae02b3

[xxvi] Netherlands Institute for Human Rights. (2023). Caribisch Nederland krijgt wetgeving gelijke behandeling. College voor de Rechten van de Mens. https://www.mensenrechten.nl/actueel/nieuws/2023/01/25/caribisch-nederland-krijgt-wetgeving-gelijke-behandeling#:~:text=Iedereen%20die%20zich%20in%20Nederland,2010%20bijzondere%20gemeentes%20van%20Nederland

[xxvii] Netherlands Institute for Human Rights. (2023). Report to UN Committee on economic, social and cultural human rights in the Netherlands. College voor de Rechten van de Mens. 4-6. https://publicaties.mensenrechten.nl/file/5803a853-0bbe-b495-7932-3bb751e0aed4.pdf

Education in the Caribean Netherlands Educational Challenges Multilingualism in the Netherlands poverty Students with Special Needs Students with Special Needs in the Netherlands

Educational Challenges in the Faroe Islands

Written by Anna Strunk

Nestled in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Faroe Islands are a self-governing territory within the Kingdom of Denmark. The archipelago of 18 islands is populated by around 52,000 habitants, most of which speak the local tongue of Faroese. Despite its isolated and small territory, as well as their small number of inhabitants, Faroese people have a quality of life that excels that of many other countries. For instance, the unemployment rate reached a record low of 0.6% in June 2023, one of the lowest among European countries. The Faroe Islands also possess one of the lowest crime rates in the world, making it an exceedingly safe place to live and travel to. In regard to education, another crucial quality-of-life indicator given its pivotal role in empowering individuals, fostering economic prosperity, and enhancing social well-being, the Faroe Islands’ schooling system is based on the belief that everyone should have equal access to educational attainment. This translates into public free education for the whole population at all levels, from primary school to higher education. However, that being said, education in the archipelago has its problems and challenges, as pointed out by a Faroese student who moved abroad for higher education interviewed for this article, such as the limited university degrees or the nature of the small communities negatively affecting young students.

Nature of small and dispersed communities

An important topic which emerged from the interviews was the nature of the small communities in the Faroe Islands affecting kids’ academic success and well-being in school. Much research has looked into the influence of community type on a child’s academic achievements and social-behavioral skills, among others, and although none have looked at it in the specific case study of the Faroe Islands, one can draw conclusions for it too. For instance, due to their small numbers, the Faroese live in small close-knit communities, in which everyone knows each other. This means that many parents and teachers had relationships or mutual associations before they created a parent-teacher relationship. This may be good, as much research has shown that “positive connections between parents and teachers have been shown to improve children’s academic achievement, social competencies and emotional well-being”[i].

Conversely however, if a teacher harbors negative perceptions of a student’s parents, this can lead to (sometimes unconscious) stigmatization of certain children through biased teacher-student interactions possibly resulting in lower grades. For instance, the interviewee mentioned an instance in which the daughter of a known shoplifter in the Faroe Islands received stricter teaching in which it was harder for her to pass her assignments just because her last name was associated with her dad’s criminal record. Similarly, in one another instance recollected, the daughter of a beloved teacher completed high school with minimal effort due to the positive associations teachers had with her dad. Furthermore, adding to the bias problem related to pre-existing negative perceptions between teachers and parents, Witte finds that small and less densely populated communities, such as those found in the Faroe Islands, experience lower quality parent–teacher relationships than big cities, which she speculated might be due to factors such as less and limited access to partnership-building opportunities and support in rural and town areas compared to big cities[ii].

While primary schools are very accessible, with many of them throughout the various villages or even teachers traveling to kids’ homes, there are less options for gymnasium, which means students and parents have to travel greater distances to go to school or interact with teachers, potentially leading to lower attendance rates and contributing to academic difficulties, or making it less likely for parents to attend ceremonies which involve them in their child’s educational upbringing. Therefore, the nature of the small and dispersed communities in the Faroe Islands can affect kids negatively both due to pre-existing negative associations between parents and teachers, as mostly pointed out by the interviewee, as well as due issues such as the distance between schools and families, which can limit parent-teacher time for collaborative, relationship-building meetings.

Reliance on other countries for educational resources

Another main issue pointed out by the interviewees is the reliance of the Faroe Islands on Denmark and the rest of the Nordic community for educational resources and opportunities. One of the most straightforward examples of this reliance is the fact that University of the Faroe Islands (Fróðskaparsetur Føroya, in Faroese), located in the capital city of Tórshavn, only offers 16 bachelor’s degree options. This means that many students seeking a (specific) higher education after high school are forced to move to another country, often mainland Denmark, in order to pursue their choice of studies. For instance, in the academic year of 2016/2017, 1,202 students pursued their bachelor’s degree in Denmark, 173 somewhere else, and only 996 stayed in the Faroe Islands.

The necessity of relocating abroad for educational pursuits may cause disparities in the accessibility of higher education depending on socioeconomic background, as not everyone has the economic and social means to depart from the archipelago and leave friends and family behind in pursuit of advanced studies. This is most evident by the fact that Faroese people get married and have kids very early on. The interviewee pointed out that some of their friends wanted to study medicine abroad with them, but due to starting families right after high school, leaving the country was not a viable option, and thus had to give up their educational dreams and study something more accessible within the archipelago. However, the effects of socioeconomic background on the possibilities for studying abroad in regard to the Faroe Islands are yet to be researched in-depth.

This trend regarding the expatriation of Faroese students has been on the downturn however, as in 2020 1,018 students stayed in the archipelago while only 767 went elsewhere. As recounted by Linda Klein in an article for DR (Danish Broadcasting Corporation), this is most likely due to young people in the Islands starting to see a future at home: the University has added new degree opportunities in recent years, and a new dorm has been built for students of the University of the Faroe Islands, making it easier and cheaper for students to find their own place in the capital. However, even if the trend is in the downturn, the reasons have not been researched in-depth and the number of students who must leave the Faroe Islands to study is still quite significant. Thus, the government needs to continue to ease the difficulty of choice young people face in the Faroe Islands between their home, family, and friends, and the pursuit of higher education for better job opportunities later in life.

Another facet of this reliance on Denmark, other Northern countries and the English-speaking world in general is the fact that little books and other educational materials are written in Faroese, and more recently more English materials have been introduced in the classroom. Danish has for most of recent history been a principal language in the Faroe Islands, with most of the population speaking it fluently, and has so far coexisted without marginalizing and diluting the Faroese language.

However, with the introduction of English into classrooms, there’s a good likelihood that the Faroese are to become a trilingual society, as evidenced already by young people code-switching between Faroese and English in everyday conversations, and sometimes even only speaking in English. If this trend follows them into adulthood, Rakul Skaale Andreasen argues in her thesis that “it might mean that English will replace Faroese in the future”[iii]. Therefore, less and less people speak Faroese as fluently as they used to, which was pointed out by the interviewee when mentioning that kids nowadays have to be reminded of common words such as ‘airport’, as they only remember it in English. This has been shown to have negative effects on people’s sense of belonging, community, and inclusivity, as good proficiency in the national language contributes to these factors[iv].

Ultimately, university students being forced to an extent to move to other countries and thus receive education in a foreign language, as well as the large-scale introduction of school materials in English, violates Faroese people’s right to be taught in their mother tongue, a right stressed in many international human rights documents and conventions such as Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights and European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. However, more research into the topic is needed, as well as its effects, with Skaale Andreasen’s thesis offering a steppingstone into this field.

Conclusion

Although education in the Faroe Islands is that corresponding to one of general quality, it has many issues which need to be addressed. Of course, given the fact that the Faroese are small in numbers and the territory is dispersed in various islands, the education system cannot be expected to be perfect with all opportunities larger communities with more people can offer. However, the problems these characteristics give rise to need to be identified in order to minimize them, and whether some of those outlined in this article are anecdotal evidence from first-hand accounts or a symptom of a wider problem remains to be studied. Therefore, in order to make the system as accessible as possible and foster students’ well-being to the maximum extent, more research is needed, as without it, it is way more difficult to pinpoint the problems and address them. In this sense, the lack of research could be argued to be one of the main challenges to an ever-improving Faroese education system, which adapts to the various situations and challenges of the time.

References

Trading Economics. (2023). Faroe Islands Unemployment Rate. https://tradingeconomics.com/faroe-islands/unemployment-rate#:~:text=Unemployment%20Rate%20in%20Faroe%20Islands%20averaged%203.89%20percent%20from%201995
SBS News. (2018). What you didn’t know about the Faroe Islands. https://www.sbs.com.au/news/dateline/article/what-you-didnt-know-about-the-faroe-islands/1q40q5cpw
Sheridan, S. M. (2018). Establishing healthy parent-teacher relationships for early learning success. Early Learning Network. https://earlylearningnetwork.unl.edu/2018/08/29/parent-teacher-relationships/
MU News Bureau. (2017). Students More Likely to Succeed if Teachers have Positive Perceptions of Parents | News Bureau, University of Missouri. Munewsarchives.missouri.edu. https://munewsarchives.missouri.edu/news-releases/2017/0220-students-more-likely-to-succeed-if-teachers-have-positive-perceptions-of-parents/
Hurst-Missouri, N. (2017). How teachers see parents can influence kids. Futurity.org. https://www.futurity.org/teachers-parents-perception-1367462/
Witte, A. (2015). Parent-Teacher relationships Across Community Types. In Public Access Theses and Dissertations from the College of Education and Human Sciences. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1232&context=cehsdiss
Studni. (2022). Føroyingar á haegri útbúgvingum býtt á landafrøðilig øki og skúlaár. In https://www.studni.fo/.
Sæhl, M., & Hybel, M. (2018). Færøske unge fravælger Danmark: Vi kan se en fremtid på Færøerne. DR. https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/indland/faeroeske-unge-fravaelger-danmark-vi-kan-se-en-fremtid-paa-faeroeerne
Breum, M. (2020). Færøsk in a nutshell. Truer engelsk færingernes sprog? Uddannelses- Og Forskningsministeriet. https://ufm.dk/uddannelse/videregaende-uddannelse/priser-og-konkurrencer/specialekonkurrence-om-rigsfaellesskabet/2020/faerosk-in-a-nutshell-truer-engelsk-faeringernes-sprog
Verbal Planet. (n.d.). The Connection Between Language and National Identity. Www.verbalplanet.com. Retrieved October 29, 2023, from https://www.verbalplanet.com/blog/languages-and-national-identity.asp#:~:text=Language%20as%20a%20Source%20of%20Pride%20and%20Identity%3A&text=Proficiency%20in%20the%20national%20language
Article 19. (2014). The Importance of Receiving Education in One’s Mother Tongue. Article19.org. https://www.article19.org/resources/importance-receiving-education-ones-mother-tongue/#:~:text=The%20right%20to%20receiving%20education

[i] Sheridan, S. M. (2018). Establishing healthy parent-teacher relationships for early learning success. Early Learning Network. https://earlylearningnetwork.unl.edu/2018/08/29/parent-teacher-relationships/

[ii] Based on findings by Kushman & Barnhardt, 2001.

[iii] Breum, M. (2020). Færøsk in a nutshell. Truer engelsk færingernes sprog? Uddannelses- Og Forskningsministeriet. https://ufm.dk/uddannelse/videregaende-uddannelse/priser-og-konkurrencer/specialekonkurrence-om-rigsfaellesskabet/2020/faerosk-in-a-nutshell-truer-engelsk-faeringernes-sprog. Article on Rakul Skaale Andreasens’ thesis about the attitude of young Faroese towards Faroese, English and Faroese-English code switching.

[iv] Verbal Planet. (n.d.). The Connection Between Language and National Identity. Retrieved October 29, 2023, from https://www.verbalplanet.com/blog/languages-and-national-identity.asp#:~:text=Language%20as%20a%20Source%20of%20Pride%20and%20Identity%3A&text=Proficiency%20in%20the%20national%20language

Cover Image by Max Fischer via Pexels

Educational Challenges Educational Challenges in the Faroe Islands Faroe Islands education Faroe Islands education system Faroese education quality of life in the Faroe Islands

Challenges in Guinea’s Education System

Written by Merve Tiregul

Guinea, officially the Republic of Guinea, is a country located on the west coast of Africa with a population of 13.53 million[i]. The region is known for hosting various ancient empires and civilisations, such as the Ghana and the Mali Empire, and a wide range of ethnic groups with historical roots, like the Fulani, Mandinka, and Susu people[ii] [iii] [iv]. In the late 19th century, Guinea came under French control with European powers, particularly France, establishing colonies in the region[v]. Guinea gained independence from France on October 2, 1958, under the leadership of Ahmed Sékou Touré, who became the country’s first president[vi]. It was the only French West African colony to choose immediate independence rather than continued association with France[vii].

However, Touré’s presidency grew to be authoritarian and was marked by political repression, human rights abuses, and economic mismanagement[viii]. Touré’s policies led to the international isolation of Guinea and the country becoming one of the poorest in the region[ix]. Following Touré’s death, the country continued to struggle with poor macroeconomic performance, weak governance structures, and political instability in the 1990s[x]. In 2010, Guinea made considerable progress with a new constitution and democratic elections[xi]. However, the country faced political upheaval with a coup d’état in September 2021, leading to a fluid and unstable political landscape once again [xii]. The remnants of colonialism have left enduring imprints on the nation’s history, politics, and education system, contributing to structural challenges that still persist. Today, Guinea stands as one of the least developed nations globally, and the current political instability poses a substantial barrier to achieving widespread education access within the country [xiii].

While strides have been made to increase access to education, there is still ample room for improvement. Access to quality education is unequally distributed, especially in rural areas, leading to disparities in enrolment rates and learning outcomes. Although primary education for Guinean children is free and compulsory, the country struggles with extremely low enrolment and completion rates [xiv]. This is due to various factors such as economic barriers, traditional gender roles, cultural norms, and lack of infrastructure. This article aims to delve into the educational challenges in Guinea, shedding light on key issues that demand attention.

Lack of Infrastructure

The lack of adequate infrastructure in schools is a great concern in Guinea. Although the Guinean government made promises to increase the budget for education by 20% per international standards, it has been declining since 2020 to 10.2%, getting close to an all-time low [xv] [xvi]. Poorly equipped classrooms, libraries, and sanitation facilities hinder the quality of education and demotivate children from going to school. Many schools face a shortage of essential learning resources such as textbooks, reference materials, and teaching aids. The lack of these resources hampers the effectiveness of teaching and learning processes [xvii].

The lack of infrastructure also has a direct effect on the gender disparity in accessing education. As per the United Nations Children’s Fund, approximately 10% of female children in Africa miss or drop out of school due to not having access to proper restroom facilities during menstruation[xviii]. In fact, following improvements in school sanitation, Guinean girls’ enrolment rates witnessed a 17% increase from 1997 to 2002, demonstrating the crucial role sanitation facilities play in girls’ access to education [xix].

The insufficient infrastructure is particularly pronounced in rural regions making it harder for children to attend school regularly. This issue is particularly critical given that approximately 62% of the population in Guinea resides in rural areas [xx]. The country has a predominantly agrarian economy, with agriculture being a primary source of livelihood for a significant portion of the population. Additionally, Guinea has experienced relatively limited urbanisation and the pace of rural-to-urban migration has been slow. Unfortunately, ensuring universal access to education is significantly more difficult in rural areas where the majority of Guineans live. Schools are usually hard to reach because of long distances and insufficient transportation networks, such as roads and public transportation. Moreover, improving the quality of education proves notably challenging in Guinea’s rural areas. The lack of qualified teachers, adequate classrooms, educational materials, and sanitary facilities poses an even more significant problem in these regions compared to urban areas [xxi].

Quality of Education

The shortage of qualified teachers in Guinea is a pressing concern regarding the quality of education. Many schools, especially in rural areas, face difficulties in recruiting and retaining teachers with proper qualifications. The average classroom consists of 80 students and only one teacher[xxii]. Large student-teacher ratios make it challenging for educators to provide individual attention to students. The Education Systems Analysis Programme report has shown that in 2019, a mere 45% of students who completed primary school demonstrated satisfactory proficiency in reading and only 32% exhibited sufficient skills in mathematics[xxiii]. This data illustrates the importance of the teacher shortage problem given its direct influence on learning outcomes.

Economic Barriers

Economic constraints pose significant challenges to families striving to provide education for their children. A poverty measurement survey conducted by Unicef in 2020 has shown that around half the population of children in Guinea live in poor households [xxiv]. Educational expenses, such as textbooks, uniforms, school supplies, and transportation impede access to education for many Guinean children. Moreover, many families in Guinea rely on agriculture or informal sector activities for their livelihoods. Sending a child to school means diverting labor from economic activities, which can be a significant opportunity cost for families dependent on daily wages.

Economic barriers also have a direct impact on the gender disparity regarding access to education. If a low-income family has both male and female children, they often prefer sending their boys to school while girls stay home to help with chores. Boys are regarded as a better investment than girls and their education is therefore deemed more valuable for low-income families, especially in rural areas [xxv].

Boys in a classroom. Guinea, June 2015, by GPE/Tabassy Baro via Flickr

Gender Disparities

While primary and secondary schools have become more accessible for Guinean girls since the 1980s, gender disparity in education remains a significant challenge in Guinea. When it comes to enrolment and completion rates, especially at the primary and secondary levels, there is a wide gap between boys and girls. In 2012, the rate of completion for primary school among females stood at 61.5% [xxvi]. Regarding secondary school participation, the net enrolment for males was 40.5%, whereas for females, it experienced a discouraging decline to 25.9% in 2016 [xxvii]. As of 2020 data, it was estimated that 37.8% of boys complete lower secondary school in Guinea, whereas the rate is 28.5% for girls [xxviii]. Notably, the disparity in completion rates between boys and girls stands at 9.3, surpassing the Sub-Saharan Africa aggregate gap of 3 [xxix]. When it comes to adult literacy, the gap between men and women stands at 29.9 which is larger than the gap of the Sub-Saharan Africa aggregate, 13. While 61.2% of Guinean men can read and write, the literacy rate is notably lower for women at 31.2%[xxx].

The gender gap in education has a large impact on the employment and financial independence of women. Since 1990, there has been a decline in the participation of women in the labor force in Guinea. In 2022, the participation rate in the labor force was 63.7% for men, whereas it was 41.7% for women [xxxi]. Education and literacy also play a significant role in the social standing of women and the extent to which women are empowered to contribute to and influence key aspects of their family life. In 2018, only 30.4% of Guinean women were involved in making major decisions in the household, such as household purchases, decisions about their healthcare, and visits to family, relatives, and friends [xxxii].

A 2008 research conducted by Tuwor and Soussou on gender discrimination and education in West Africa reveals persistent challenges affecting girls’ education[xxxiii]. These obstacles include cultural beliefs, misinterpretation of religious teachings, parents with limited literacy and education, and economic constraints. Families are often worried that their girls will lose their traditional values and will not make suitable wives if they receive an education. The study suggests that within Sub-Saharan Africa, the society reinforces the idea that a woman’s primary role is within the household and that girls should uphold traditional roles as brides, mothers, and domestic labourers. Due to these cultural norms and gender roles, girls are forced into child marriages, pregnancies, and physical and sexual violence within those marriages which prevent them from going to school [xxxiv]. Data collected by UNICEF from 2008 to 2012 supports this by revealing that 35.6% of female teenagers were married during this period[xxxv]. While the rate of adolescent pregnancies has decreased since 2010, 115 of every 1,000 girls between the ages of 15 and 19 gave birth in Guinea in 2021, which is still 2.7 times more than the world average[xxxvi].

Additionally, household chores, caring for younger siblings, and cooking are other domestic responsibilities expected from girls which hinder their ability to attend school. According to the same study, the concern that their girls might get sexually assaulted or even raped is another reason why Guinean parents are reluctant to send their girls to school [xxxvii]. An empirical research conducted by Coleman in 2017 has revealed that it is, in fact, common for teachers to demand sexual favours from female students for a passing grade with little ramifications[xxxviii]. Overall, traditional gender roles, cultural norms, child marriage, and gender-based violence are all serious obstacles to girls’ access to education.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Guinea faces a wide variety of educational challenges that demand immediate attention and collaborative solutions. In order to achieve universal access to education, it is crucial for the government to address the issues of qualified teacher shortages, inadequate infrastructure, economic barriers, and gender disparities. As we envision a future where every Guinean child has equal access to quality education, collaborative efforts between government bodies, communities, and international partners become paramount. Increasing the budget for education, investing in teacher training programs, improving infrastructure, and leveraging technology for educational enhancement are essential steps in the right direction. Moreover, the acknowledgment of the unique challenges faced by Guinean girls and women must be at the forefront of educational reforms. Gender-sensitive policies, community engagement, and awareness initiatives are vital components in dismantling barriers and fostering a more inclusive educational landscape. By overcoming these challenges and prioritising education, Guinea can lay the groundwork for innovation, economic growth, and social cohesion, and promise a better future for its youth.

References

[i] World Bank. (2022). Population, total – Guinea. Retrieved January 15, 2024, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=GN

[ii] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). Ghana | History, Culture & Legacy. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana-historical-West-African-empire

[iii] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2023, December 4). Mali empire | History, Rulers, Downfall, Map, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Mali-historical-empire-Africa

[iv] Guinea | Map, Flag, Population, People, Religion, & Facts. (2024, January 10). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Guinea/People

[v] O’Toole, T. E. (2023, June 9). History of Guinea | Events, people, dates, & facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Guinea

[vi] Ibid.

[vii] Schmidt, E. (2009). Anticolonial nationalism in French West Africa: What made Guinea unique? African Studies Review, 52(2), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1353/arw.0.0219

[viii] Pace, E. (1984, March 28). Ahmed Sekou Toure, a Radical Hero. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1984/03/28/obituaries/ahmed-sekou-toure-a-radical-hero.html

[ix] Farah, D. (2000, November 9). Leader keeps tight grip on Guinea. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2000/11/09/leader-keeps-tight-grip-on-guinea/c09726c4-1247-471c-880d-3c6c91592178/

[x] United Nations Development Programme. (2017). Country programme document for Guinea (2018-2022). Retrieved December 13, 2023, from https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2022-10/cpd_guinea_2018-2022.pdf

[xi] Ibid.

[xii] Samb, S. (2021, September 6). Elite Guinea army unit says it has toppled president. Reuters. Retrieved January 15, 2024, from https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/heavy-gunfire-heard-guinea-capital-conakry-reuters-witness-2021-09-05/

[xiii] Samb, S. (2021, September 6). Elite Guinea army unit says it has toppled president. Reuters. Retrieved January 15, 2024, from https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/heavy-gunfire-heard-guinea-capital-conakry-reuters-witness-2021-09-05/

[xiv] The World Bank. (2019). Guinea Education Project for Results in Early Childhood and Basic Education (. Retrieved January 15, 2024, from https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/pt/292711553199830295/pdf/Project-Information-Document-Guinea-Education-Project-for-Results-in-Early-Childhood-and-Basic-Education-P167478.pdf

[xv] Unicef. (2021). Guinea – Country Office Annual Report 2021. Retrieved January 15, 2024, from https://www.unicef.org/media/117026/file/Guinea-2021-COAR.pdf

[xvi] MacroTrends. (n.d.). Guinea education spending 1991-2023. Retrieved December 12, 2023, from https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/GIN/guinea/education-spending

[xvii] The World Bank. (2019b). Project Appraisal Document: Guinea Education Project for Results in Early Childhood and Basic Education. Retrieved January 15, 2024, from https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/490581562983276735/pdf/Guinea-Project-for-Results-in-Early-Childhood-and-Basic-Education.pdf

[xviii] Coleman, R. (2017). Gender and Education in Guinea: Increasing accessibility and maintaining girls in school. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 18(4), 266–277. https://paperity.org/p/84185798/gender-and-education-in-guinea-increasing-accessibility-and-maintaining-girls-in-school

[xix] Lafraniere, S. (2005, December 23). Another school barrier for girls: no toilet. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/23/world/africa/another-school-barrierfor-african-girls-no-toilet.html?_r=0

[xx] The World Bank. (n.d.). Rural population (% of total population) Guinea. World Bank Open Data. Retrieved December 13, 2023, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS?locations=GN

[xxi] Unicef. (2021). Guinea – Country Office Annual Report 2021. Retrieved January 15, 2024, from https://www.unicef.org/media/117026/file/Guinea-2021-COAR.pdf

[xxii] Three ways people are improving education in Guinea. (2017). The Borgen Project. Retrieved January 15, 2024, from https://borgenproject.org/education-in-guinea/

[xxiii] Unicef. (2021). Guinea – Country Office Annual Report 2021. Retrieved January 15, 2024, from https://www.unicef.org/media/117026/file/Guinea-2021-COAR.pdf

[xxiv] Ibid.

[xxv] Coleman, R. (2017). Gender and Education in Guinea: Increasing accessibility and maintaining girls in school. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 18(4), 266–277. https://paperity.org/p/84185798/gender-and-education-in-guinea-increasing-accessibility-and-maintaining-girls-in-school

[xxvi] Ibid.

[xxvii] UN. (2016) UN data. Retrieved from https://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=GUINEA

[xxviii] UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS.Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Retrieved December 12, 2023 from https://apiportal.uis.unesco.org/bdds.

[xxix] Ibid.

[xxx] Ibid.

[xxxi] International Labour Organization. “ILO Modelled Estimates and Projections database (ILOEST)” ILOSTAT. Retrieved December 12, 2023, from https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/.

[xxxii] Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS). (n.d.). Women participating in the three decisions (own health care, major household purchases, and visiting family) (% of women age 15-49). Retrieved December 14, 2023, from https://genderdata.worldbank.org/countries/guinea/#:~:text=28.5%25%20of%20girls%20and%2037.8,%2DSaharan%20Africa%20aggregate%2C%203

[xxxiii] Tuwor, T., & Soussou, M. (2008). Accessing pupil development and education in an inclusive setting. International Journal of Inclusive Education. 12(4), 363-379.

[xxxiv] Ibid.

[xxxv] UNICEF World Summit for Children. (2016). Plan of action for implementing The world declaration on survival, protection and development of children in the 1990s. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/wsc/plan.htm#Basic

[xxxvi] United Nations Population Division, World Population Prospects

[xxxvii] Coleman, R. (2017). Gender and Education in Guinea: Increasing accessibility and maintaining girls in school. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 18(4), 266–277. https://paperity.org/p/84185798/gender-and-education-in-guinea-increasing-accessibility-and-maintaining-girls-in-school

[xxxviii] Ibid

Cover Image: “A classroom in session at Kigneko School; Dabola Area, in Guinea.” by GPE/Adrien Boucher via Flickt

Education Educational Challenges educational challenges in Guinea Gender Disparities in guinea Guinea education system guinean schools Lack of Infrastructure in guinea Quality of Education in guinea

Проблемы образования в Казахстане

Бьёрн Лаурин Кюн

Казахстан – быстро развивающаяся страна в Центральной Азии, которая за последние годы добилась значительного прогресса в развитии образования. Тем не менее, страна по-прежнему сталкивается с рядом проблем, которые необходимо решить, чтобы повысить качество образования и предоставить лучшие возможности для своих граждан. В данном отчете рассматриваются проблемы образования в Казахстане, их причины и возможные решения.

Проблемы образования и их решения на уровне начальной школы:

Во-первых, начальное образование в Казахстане охватывает первые четыре года обучения в школе. Одной из серьезных проблем, стоящих перед начальным образованием в Казахстане, является низкое качество преподавания. Согласно докладу ЮНЕСКО, многие учителя не обладают необходимыми навыками для обеспечения качественного образования, что приводит к низким результатам обучения, которые оказывают значительное влияние на страну (UNESCO, 2019). Кроме того, не хватает современных учебных материалов, особенно в сельской местности, где многие школы не имеют доступа к современному оборудованию и ресурсам. Устаревшие учебные программы также упоминаются в качестве серьезной проблемы для начального образования в Казахстане (Karatayeva et al., 2019).

OECD (2016), PISA 2015 Results (Volume II): Policies and Practices for Successful Schools, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264267510-en.

Отсутствие доступа к современному оборудованию и средствам сыграло решающую роль во время пандемии COVID-19, когда после всплеска инфекций были введены общенациональные ограничения. В последующие месяцы была введена строгая изоляция, что негативно сказалось на системе образования в Казахстане (Marteau, 2020). Это можно увидеть на следующем графике:

World Bank Blogs. Post-COVID education in Kazakhstan: Heavy losses and deepening inequality. Retrieved from: https://blogs.worldbank.org/europeandcentralasia/post-covid-education-kazakhstan-heavy-losses-and-deepening-inequality

В связи с этим, чтобы решить проблемы начального образования, правительство реализовало несколько инициатив. В 2011 году были запущены программы “Новое гуманитарное образование” и “Новая школа”, направленные на повышение качества начального образования (Nurmukhametov, et. al, 2015). Эти программы были направлены на внедрение современных методов обучения, современных учебных материалов и новых учебных программ, отражающих современные тенденции и требования, чтобы предотвратить стагнацию в стране и ее системе образования. Правительство также инвестировало в программы подготовки учителей для повышения квалификации преподавателей с целью дальнейшего улучшения качества системы образования в Казахстане.

Однако, несмотря на эти усилия, между городскими и сельскими районами существует значительное неравенство в качестве образования, которое усилилось после COVID-19. В сельских районах качество образования ниже, так как многие школы не имеют необходимого оборудования, материалов и квалифицированных учителей. В связи с этой сохраняющейся проблемой правительство запустило несколько инициатив по устранению этих различий, в том числе программу “Новая деревня”, которая направлена на повышение качества образования в сельской местности (Yakavets & Dzhadrina, 2014). Программа предусматривает финансирование строительства новых школ, восстановление существующих школ и обучение учителей. Это крайне важно для системы образования Казахстана, поскольку большинство граждан проживает в сельской местности, расположенной вдали от развитой инфраструктуры, и, таким образом, сильно зависит от образовательных программ, предлагаемых правительством.

Проблемы образования и их решения на уровне среднего образования:

Среднее образование в Казахстане охватывает классы с пятого по одиннадцатый. Качество преподавания в средних школах в целом выше, чем в начальных. Однако учебные программы устарели и не отражают современных тенденций и требований, которые развиваются быстрыми темпами под влиянием глобализации и развития технологий. Последствия устаревшей учебной программы, используемой во многих казахстанских школах, заключаются в том, что учащиеся не получают достаточной подготовки для современной рабочей среды. Обновление учебной программы и обеспечение ее соответствия потребностям современной экономики может быть достигнуто путем привлечения отраслевых экспертов к ее разработке и предоставления учителям необходимой подготовки для эффективного преподавания (Rakhimova & Gabdulhakov, 2018).

Кроме того, существует нехватка квалифицированных учителей, особенно в сельской местности, что, по сути, создает те же проблемы, что и в системе начального образования (Karatayeva et al., 2019).

Для решения этих проблем правительство запустило несколько инициатив. В 2018 году была запущена программа “Цифровой Казахстан”, направленная на модернизацию образования и внедрение цифровых технологий в учебном процессе. Программа направлена на предоставление учащимся доступа к цифровым ресурсам, такими как электронные книги и платформы онлайн-обучения. Правительство также инвестировало в программы подготовки учителей для повышения квалификации преподавателей и привлечения квалифицированных преподавателей в сельские районы, чтобы обеспечить более доступные источники образования для тех, кто живет в сельской местности Казахстана.

Проблемы образования и их решения на уровне высшего образования:

Высшее образование в Казахстане сталкивается с такими проблемами, как нехватка квалифицированных преподавателей, устаревшие учебные программы и отсутствие академической свободы. Коррупция и академический плагиат также являются распространенными проблемами в системе высшего образования страны, что пагубно сказывается на академических и профессиональных перспективах трудоустройства казахстанцев (Karatayeva et al., 2019).

Для решения этих проблем правительство запустило несколько инициатив. В 2010 году была запущена программа “Модернизация высшего образования”, направленная на повышение качества высшего образования в Казахстане (Yakavets & Dzhadrina, 2014). Эта программа была направлена на привлечение более квалифицированных профессоров, повышение качества исследований и модернизацию учебных программ для общего улучшения образования в университетах. Правительство также инвестировало в развитие цифровых технологий в высшем образовании и создание новых университетов, чтобы сделать образование еще более доступным.

Однако, несмотря на эти усилия, проблемы в сфере высшего образования продолжают существовать. Нехватка квалифицированных преподавателей по-прежнему является серьезной проблемой, особенно в научно-технических областях, которые приобретают все большее значение в условиях глобализации. Кроме того, учебные программы в некоторых университетах все еще устарели и не отражают современных тенденций и требований двадцать первого века. Кроме того, в системе высшего образования страны распространены коррупция и академический плагиат.

Финансирование – еще одна проблема, особенно заметная в высшем образовании, которую необходимо решить в секторе образования Казахстана. Несмотря на то, что правительство увеличило инвестиции в образование, финансирование высшего образования все еще ограничено по сравнению с другими странами. Увеличение инвестиций в образование и изучение альтернативных источников финансирования, таких как частные инвестиции и международная помощь, могут решить эту проблему (Sultanbekova & Turgunova, 2018).

Проблемы образования в Казахстане: Возможные решения

Можно сделать вывод, что Казахстан добился значительного прогресса в развитии образования, но все еще существует ряд проблем, требующих решения. Решение этих проблем потребует согласованных усилий со стороны правительства, педагогов и других заинтересованных сторон в сфере образования. Совместными усилиями Казахстан сможет повысить качество образования и предоставить лучшие возможности для своих граждан. Для решения проблем в системе образования можно предпринять несколько шагов. Правительство должно увеличить свои денежные инвестиции в образование. Бюджет страны на образование должен быть увеличен, чтобы обеспечить достаточное финансирование для строительства новых школ, восстановления существующих школ и предоставления современных учебных материалов.

Библиография:

Marteau, J. (2020). Post-COVID education in Kazakhstan: Heavy losses and deepening inequality. World Bank Blogs. Retrieved from: https://blogs. worldbank. org/europeandcentralasia/post-covid-education-kazakhstanheavy-losses-and-deepeninginequality#:~: text= Before% 20COVID% 2D19% 2C% 20six% 20out, more% 20students% 20i nto% 20functional% 20illiteracy.
Nurmukhametov, N., Temirova, A., & Bekzhanova, T. (2015). The problems of development of distance education in Kazakhstan. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 182, 15-19.
Rakhimova, A., & Gabdulhakov, R. (2018). The challenges of modernizing the educational system of Kazakhstan. Journal of Education and Practice, 9(6), 23-29.
Sultanbekova, S., & Turgunova, L. (2018). Education financing in Kazakhstan: Challenges and solutions. European Journal of Education Studies, 5(5), 28-38.
UNESCO. (2019). Education in Kazakhstan. Retrieved from: https://en.unesco.org/countries/kazakhstan/education
World Bank. (2018). Kazakhstan Education Sector Assessment. Retrieved from: https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/kazakhstan/publication/kazakhstan-education-sector-assessment
Yakavets, N., & Dzhadrina, M. (2014). Educational reform in Kazakhstan: Entering the world arena. Educational reform and internationalisation: The case of school reform in Kazakhstan, 28-52.
Zhanar, B. (2020). Modernization of Education in Kazakhstan: An Analysis of Successes and Failures. Journal of International and Comparative Education, 9(1), 49-61.

Educational Challenges Kazakhstan Quality of Education Казахстане Проблемы образования в Казахстане

Cookie	Duration	Description
cookielawinfo-checkbox-analytics	11 months	This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-functional	11 months	The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-necessary	11 months	This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-others	11 months	This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other.
cookielawinfo-checkbox-performance	11 months	This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance".
viewed_cookie_policy	11 months	The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. It does not store any personal data.